PIGNUTS (EARTH NUTS) -ALLEGEDLY APHRODISIAC: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PIGNUTS

EARTH NUTS, PIGNUTS, CONOPODIUM MAJUS 

Pignuts are so named because pigs love to find these, as do European Brown bears. They grow in woodland in Europe and in Britain seem to love to grow in bluebell woods. You can find them all year round, but they are easier to spot in spring and summer when you can see their feathery leaves and white flower heads (umbels). They are members of the Apiaceae or carrot family, so are related to anise, caraway, celery, dill and parsley. If you go foraging for them you will have to dig about 20 centimetres down to get at the small “nuts” which are tubers with long thin roots growing around them. You have to rub the outer skin from them to eat them but they can be eaten raw or cooked (you can add them to dishes as you would water chestnuts or sangaray). They taste rather like sweet chestnuts, although some say that they are like Brazil or hazel nuts or perhaps sweet potatoes. The “nut” can grow to 3 cms in diameter although most I’ve seen have been smaller than that. If you find them they indicate that you are in ancient grass or woodland.

  In the UK they have been found at archaeological site, at the Bronze Age Barrow Hills and Mile Oak, which shows that they were known as a food source by our early ancestors. The discovery of them at Barrow Hills might also indicate that they were used in rituals.

  They were clearly known in Shakespeare’s day as he has his ‘monster’ Caliban tells Trinculo (a drunken servant) that he will show him the delights of the island which include these ‘nuts’.

  “Caliban: I prithee, let me bring thee where crabs grow,

                 And I with my long nails will dig thee pignuts.”

   (Act II scene ii The Tempest)

John Gerard, writing in the 16^th century tells us that there was a “Plaister made of the seeds” of the plant, but he rather coyly declines to continue as regards the use it was put to. This mystery was later (probably) solved when Nicholas Culpeper writing in his Complete herbal in the 17^th century points out that the nuts were aphrodisiacs and stimulated “venery” or lust. He calls these “Earth chesnuts” and says this: -

“They are called earth-nuts, earth-chesnuts, ground-nuts, ciper-nuts, and in Sussex pig-nuts. A description of them were needless, for every child knows them.

Government and virtues. They are something hot and dry in quality, under the dominion of Venus; they provoke lust exceedingly, and stir up to those sports she is mistress of; the seed is excellent good to provoke urine; and so also is the root, but it doth not perform it so forcibly as the seed both. The root being dried and beaten into powder, and the powder made into an electuary is as singular a remedy for spitting and pissing of blood, as the former chesnut was for coughs.”

  The Physicians of Myddfai do not mention this but used them in this way: -

“Peritonitis is treated by means of an emetic, the blue confection and a medicine. These are the herbs required (for the medicine ;) the sweet gale, bay leaves, pimpernel, male speedwell, river startip, borage, moss, liverwort, the young leaves of the earth nut, and the mallow.”

They also used it in treatments for intermittent fevers as this remedy shows:-

”The following is a good medicine for this class of diseases : take moss, ground ivy, or elder, if obtainable, (if not obtainable, caraway,) and boil these two vegetable substances well together. Then take the mallow, fennel, pimpernel, butcher's broom, borage, and the young leaves of the earth nut, and bruise them as well as possible, putting them on the fire with the two herbs before mentioned, and boiling them well. This being done, let elder bark be taken from that portion of the tree which is in the ground,-let it be scraped and washed thoroughly, and bruised well in a mortar. Then take the liquor prepared from the fore-mentioned herbs, and mix the said bark therein assiduously between both hands, and set it to drain into a vessel to acidify, fermenting it with goat's whey, or cow's whey. Let a good cupful thereof be drank every morning as long as it lasts, a portion of raw honey, apple or wood sorrel, being taken subsequently in order to remove the taste from the mouth, after the draught. This liquor is beneficial to every man who requires to purge his body.”

  They don’t mention the aphrodisiac qualities but it makes sense that Shakespeare’s Caliban would have enjoyed them if they had such a reputation as he was a portrayal of the baser side of human nature.

  

   

GROUNDSEL- NOT JUST FOR BIRDS! HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF GROUNDSEL

GROUNDSEL, SENECIO VULGARIS 

Groundsel gets its Latin name, Senecio vulgaris, from ‘senex’ meaning ‘old man’ and vulgaris, which means ‘common’. It is believed to have got this name from the appearance of the grey hairs on the seeds. The name groundsel comes from the Anglo-Saxon, “groundeswelge” which means “ground swallower” doubtless because of its ability to spread. One plant will produce around 1,200 seeds, with hairs which are dispersed by the wind and birds which love to eat them. It has been estimated that 85% of these seeds will germinate in the first year with 100 % germinating in a five-year period, so it is a very prolific stubborn weed to remove once it has occupied an area. It is in flower between May and October. It is a member of the Asteraceae or daisy family of plants.

  It has numerous other names, including Old-Man-in-the-Spring, birdseed, chickenweed, grinsel and grundsel to mention just a few. It is an invasive alien species in North America and probably arrived on its shores in sacks of grain seed, but it is native to Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia. It has mainly been used for chickenfeed and for birdseed - the Victorians fed their canaries on it in Britain. Rabbits like it too but cows, and horses seem to instinctively know that it isn’t good for them and tend to avoid it. Groundsel contains some pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are also found in Common Ragwort, and these cause progressive, irreversible damage and ultimately death to cows and other animals. The lethal dose is between 5 and 8% of the animal’s body weight. However sheep and goats, have rumen bacteria which breaks down these toxins and so they can be used to keep down groundsel in fields.

  It is said that the leaves can be eaten raw or cooked by humans, but perhaps this is not advisable. The Anglo-Saxons used groundsel medicinally in poultices with salt added to them.

  The 16^th century English herbalist, John Gerard, recommended “the down of the flower mixed with vinegar” as a good dressing for fresh wounds. He also said that the juice of the plant, when boiled in ale could be used as a purgative with a little honey and vinegar added. It was believed that you had to dig up the roots without using any iron in the digging tool as it would then act as a remedy for wounds caused by iron. The roots were thought, if harvested in this way, to relieve headaches. It was also used as an emollient for chapped hands, with the whole plant chopped and boiling water poured over it and then allowed to infuse for half an hour. A strong infusion was used to produce vomiting and as a purgative.

  Nicholas Culpeper, writing in the 17^th century in his “Complete Herbal” had this to say of groundsel: -

  “ This herb is Venus's mistress-piece, and is as gallant and universal a medicine for all diseases coming of heat, in what part of the body soever they be, as the sun shines upon; it is very safe and friendly to the body of man: yet causes vomiting if the stomach be afflicted; if not, purging: and it doth it with more gentleness than can be expected; it is moist, and something cold withal, thereby causing expulsion, and repressing the heat caused by the motion of the internal parts in purges and vomits…

The decoction of this herb (saith Dioscorides) made with wine, and drank, helps the pains of the stomach, proceeding of choler, (which it may well do by a vomit) as daily experience shews. The juice thereof taken in drink, or the decoction of it in ale, gently performs the same. It is good against the jaundice and falling sickness, being taken in wine; as also against difficulty of making water. It provokes urine, expels gravel in the reins or kidneys; a dram thereof given in oxymel, after some walking or stirring of the body. It helps also the sciatica, griping of the belly, the cholic, defects of the liver, and provokes women's courses. The fresh herb boiled, and made into a poultice, applied to the breasts of women that are swollen with pain and heat, as also the privy parts of man or woman, the seat or fundament, or the arteries, joints, and sinews, when they are inflamed and swollen, doth much ease them; and used with some salt, helps to dissolve knots or kernels in any part of the body. The juice of the herb, or as (Dioscorides saith) the leaves and flowers, with some fine Frankincensein powder, used in wounds of the body, nerves or sinews, doth singularly help to heal them. The distilled water of the herb performs well all the aforesaid cures, but especially for inflammations or watering of the eyes, by reason of the defluxion of rheum unto them.”

  The whole herb should be picked in May or when it begins to come into flower, and dried for later use, or used fresh. However other herbs are less toxic than this one and so treat groundsel with care.

COUCH GRASS - ANNOYING WEED WITH SAVING GRACES: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF COUCH GRASS

COUCH GRASS, ELTRIGIA REPENS / ELYMUS REPENS/ AGROPYUM REPENS 

Couch grass (pronounced coo-ch) is a much reviled weed that loves growing on lawns in Britain and infuriates gardeners because it is difficult to get rid of. It is classed as an invasive weed in the US, although some believe it is a native species in both North and South America. It is certainly a native of Europe, North Asia and North Africa, as well as Australia. It is a member of the Poacea or Gramineae family which includes rye, millet (bajra), oats, barley, sorghum and wheat as well as sugar cane and the grasses.

  It is known as Quitch or Quitch grass (perhaps this is how J. K. Rowling invented Quidditch, the name of Harry Potter’s favourite game) and Quackgrass so has as many English names as Latin ones for its genus.  Another of its names is Dog’s Grass, because dogs will search for the rough leaves if they feel ill and will eat them to make themselves vomit.

 Although it is viewed as a pest today, the root was valued in the past for its medicinal properties. It is a sweet-tasting root that is said to taste a little like liquorice. It is the root which is usually used in traditional medicine systems, and it has been used since Roman times as a diuretic and to expel gravel in the bladder. The root has also been used as a coffee substitute like that of the dandelion and chicory when roasted. The young leaves and shoots can be eaten raw in spring and the root has also been ground to make meal and then mixed with wheat flour in times of scarcity.

  Couch grass has been approved by the German Commission E for urinary tract infections, and is useful if you have cystitis as it soothes the urinary tract and promotes the flow of urine. It is also said to be good for Benign Prostate Hypertrophy (BPH), for gout and rheumatism. The infusion, one ounce or the root to one pint of boiling water, steeped for 20 minutes can also be used externally as a wash for swollen limbs. It can also be drunk as a diuretic and to remove gravel. The wash will also act as a moisturizer for dry skin and is said to be useful for making rough skin smoother. The decoction can be made with 2-4 ounces of the chopped root boiled in 2 pints of water until the water has been reduced by half. Juice expressed from the roots can be added to water and drunk too. For this you need half a teaspoon to 2 teaspoons of juice and water. It has also been used as a mild laxative, although eating bananas might be easier and more productive.

  Culpeper writing in his Herbal in the 17^th century has this to say about it: -

“the most medicinal of all the quick grasses. The roots of it act powerfully by urine; they should be dried and powdered, for the decoction by water is too strong for tender stomachs, therefore should be sparingly used when given that way to children to destroy the worms. The way of use is to bruise the roots, and having well boiled them in white wine, drink the decoction; it is opening, not purging, very safe: it is a remedy against all diseases coming of stopping, and such are half those that are incident to the body of man; and although a gardener be of another opinion, yet a physician holds half an acre of them to be worth five acres of carrots twice told over.”

  Gerard, writing in the 16^th century wrote: -                                                 

“Although that Couch-grasse be an unwelcome guest to fields and gardens, yet his physicke virtues do recompense those hurts; for it openeth the stoppings of the liver and reins without any manifest heat.”

 In his time it was used for cirrhosis of the liver and for jaundice.

    It is thought that the glycolic acid in the root makes it a good diuretic, and that the agropyrene also present makes it an antibiotic. One study by Newell et al (1996) found that it had sedative properties when given to rats and mice. It contains the phenolic glycoside, vanillin, the minerals calcium, phosphorous and potassium, flavonoids which include tricin; fructose, pectin, glucose, inositol and mannitol and the aerial parts are high in protein which makes it good animal feed.

  If its presence is annoying you and you don’t want to use it medicinally, an infusion of the whole chopped plant will make very good liquid plant food. It is a useful grass and not just an invasive weed.

TIGER LILY - NOT GOOD FOR CATS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF TIGER LILY

TIGER LILY, LILIUM LANCIFOLIUM (FORMERLY LILIUM TIGRINUM)

The tiger lily is a relative of the much less in your face, lily-of-the-valley, as they are both Liliaceae family members. I think I first encountered a Tiger lily in my great-aunt’s garden in Worcestershire, England, and then in the Disney adaptation of Lewis Carroll’s “Alice Through the Looking-Glass.” The tiger lily was the first in the Garden of Live Flowers (Chapter 2) to talk to Alice:

“'O Tiger-lily,' said Alice, addressing herself to one that was waving gracefully about in the wind, 'I wish you could talk!'

'We can talk,' said the Tiger-lily: 'when there's anybody worth talking to.’"

The tiger lily was much nicer to Alice than the rose, violet and daisy and I felt she was one of the better sorts of flower.

    There’s no doubt that these flowers are impressive, as they can grow to heights of 4 feet, and the ones in that garden of my childhood were much bigger than me. There is a superstition that if you smell the flowers of the tiger lily you will get freckles, probably because the vibrant orange petals are covered with black spots which resemble freckles.

  Tiger lilies are associated with remedies for uterine problems and it seems that a tincture of the plant is used to strengthen and tone the nerves of that region. It was used in cases of prolapsed uteri. However in traditional Chinese medicine, in which the plant has been used for at least 4,000 years it would seem that it is used for respiratory problems such as bronchitis while the bulb, dried is used in soups as an anti-flu measure. The buds, bulbs and young shoots are all edible, with the roasted bulbs being compared to a baked potato in flavour. They can also be used like kachnar flowers and cooked with meat. Dried parts of this plant are used in egg dishes, so go well in scrambled eggs and omelettes. In China they are symbols of wealth and prosperity.

  In the Kyoto region of Japan the bulbs are traditionally boiled (they are said to taste a bit like parsnips) and combined with pickled plum puree to serve at New Year’s festivals.

  The tiger lily is native to China, Japan and Korea and found its way to the States in 1804. There are native lilies in the US but this is not one of them.

  There have been several studies carried out by Chinese researchers into the properties of the tiger lily and it has been found to exhibit some anti-tumour activity (Journal of Phytochemistry 1994, September, Vol. 34 (1) 227-32 Mimaki Y. et al “Steroidal Saponins from the bulbs of Lilium lancifolium and their anti-tumour activity”), to be useful in the treatment of mastitis and breast cancer and the bulbs exhibit antibacterial properties as well as being diuretic and antiparasitic.

 Hu Wy et al, August 2007, Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi Vol. 32 (16):1656-59, “Studies on chemical constituents in fresh fleshy scaleleaf of Lilium lancifolium” found that it contained berberine, the first time this has been found in a lily. It is found in Berberis Lycium or Wolfberry and the Barberry. (The scale-leaf is on the bulbs of the tiger lily.)

  The roots also have anti-inflammatory properties according to research carried out by Kwon Ok et al, July 26^th 2010, Journal of Ethnopharmacol “Anti-inflammatory effects of methanol extracts of the roots of Lilium lancifolium in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.”

  Research is limited however and more needs to be done to discover if the results of these studies can be reproduced.

  It is known that cats and tiger lilies do not get along as the plants can cause renal failure and death to cats. So think twice if you buy Tiger lilies for your garden and have a feline friend.

RED CURRANTS - JUICY RUBY-RED BERRIES: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF RED CURRANTS: RECIPE RED CURRANT FOOL (EASY)

RED CURRANTS, RIBES RUBRUM

Red currants are very closely related to blackcurrants, Ribes nigrum and the other sweeter variety, white currants. They are a gorgeous glossy red jewel-like fruit which can be eaten raw, but they are bitter, so mostly cooked. They can be mixed with blackcurrants in pies and jams, or used alone. They should not be confused with cranberries, although you can make a delicious red currant jelly that can be used with meat dishes. Like blackcurrants they are members of the Grossulariaceae or gooseberry (the European kind) family.

  Red currants are native to north, central Europe and northern Asia; they were first cultivated in Scandinavia and were introduced to the London market in the late 16^th century, and taken in 1639 to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639.

They were cultivated not only for their edible qualities but for medicinal purposes as well as they have 4 times as much vitamin C as an orange when compared by weight, so were useful to combat scurvy which is due to a vitamin C deficiency which was more prevalent in the 16^th and 17^th centuries. Red currants also contain the mineral magnesium which is essential for the health of bones, nerves muscles and the healthy functioning of the heart. It also helps to regulate blood pressure and levels of blood sugar. Vitamin C of course helps to boost the immune system and has antioxidant properties which help protect the body from scavenging free-radicals which can damage healthy cells and cause cancers. It also boosts the body’s production of collagen which puts life back in to tired, jaded skin. Vitamin C is also essential for wound healing. Red currants are also rich in potassium which also helps to regulate blood pressure and promotes a healthy heart, bones’ and muscles’ contraction and aids digestion.

  Red currants also contain traces of the minerals zinc, selenium, copper, manganese, and some phosphorous while also containing some of the B-complex vitamins, vitamin K and a little vitamin A, along with amino acids.

  The fresh leaves of the red currant bush contain the toxin hydrogen cyanide, but this is not dangerous in small doses. In small quantities it can help improve digestion and it is claimed that it has a place in cancer treatments. However an overdose can result in respiratory failure be fatal.

  The berries have a mild laxative effect and contain sugars and dietary fibre, so are a good, no-fat, no-cholesterol, and low-calorie food for those on a weight-loss diet. The leaves can be chopped and made into a tisane (fresh or dried) and used as a diuretic or to relieve the pain of inflammation in rheumatism. The leaves can be warmed and put into a poultice and placed on painful rheumatic joints and are also used to relieve the pain and swellings resulting from sprains or dislocated joints.

  If you pulp the fresh berries you can make a face mask (leave it on for 20 to 30 minutes before rinsing off with tepid water, then splashing your face with cold water) which will leaves your skin feeling fresher and more elastic. A yellow dye can be obtained from the leaves and a black one from the fruit- although it would be better if you found ways of eating the berries rather than using them in this way.

  You can poach red currants in a little water, cooking them for about 4 minutes or until they just begin to burst and sprinkle them with sugar and serve with cream for a really quick, easy dessert, or pour them over ice cream or try this simple recipe for a Red Currant Fool.

RED CURRANT FOOL

Ingredients

750 gr red currants removed from stalks

2 tsps vanilla extract

4 tbsps icing sugar (or confectioner’s sugar)

200 ml double or whipping cream

200 ml natural Greek yoghurt (thick natural yoghurt)

Method

Separate the fruit and put two-thirds of it into a blander with 2 tbsps of the sugar and blend to a puree.

Whip the cream until it is stiff then add the vanilla extract and the remaining sugar and whisk until stiff again.

Add the yoghurt and fruit puree to this and mix in well. Fold in the remaining fruit, leaving some to decorate the top of the fool with, and mix well.

Spoon into individual glasses and refrigerate until ready to serve.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

  

OPOPONAX (SWEET MYRRH) - INCENSE CHOICE OF ANCIENT KINGS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF OPOPONAX

OPOPONAX, SWEET MYRRH, OPOPONAX CHIRONIUM 

The name opoponax comes from the ancient Greek, opos meaning vegetable juice and panax meaning a panacea or cure-all. The plant, Opoponax chironium, is native to the southern Mediterranean regions and also grows in parts of Africa, such as Somalia and Kenya, as well as in Iran. The botanical name chironium means that it was associated with Chiron the centaur who, in Greek mythology, was the first medical practitioner who was given healing herbs such as centaury by Artemis the goddess of hunting. It is also known as Sweet myrrh and Bisabol myrrh, although these terms are not necessarily related to Opoponax chironium as there are several varieties.

  Opoponax is a member of the Umbelliferae plant family and as such is related to fennel, carrots, angelica, hemlock, lovage and cow parsley among others. The oleo resin extracted from cuts in the base of the stems of this plant is used in the perfume industry and has been used as incense for centuries. It is one of those Biblical resins along with balm of Gilead, True myrrh, frankincense and used along with cinnamon and cassia for its aroma. The smell of the fresh juice which is dried to form the resin is not very pleasant, but King Solomon seemed to believe that it was the best incense available to him.

  The aroma is said to be reminiscent of lavender and to have a balsamic tinge to it. It has been used for centuries in the perfume industry and James Joyce, the early twentieth century novelist was familiar with it as Leopold Bloom, his main character in the epic tome “Ulysses” recognized it as an ingredient of his wife, Molly’s perfume. It also makes an appearance in Thomas Pynchon’s later work, “Against the Day” where “Plug” Loafsley’s club is said to smell of it combined with bodily smells and vervain. It makes an appearance in other novels, but these two novelists clearly knew exactly what it was, as opposed to Stephen King, who uses it rather nonsensically in one or two of his books. No doubt it is a name to conjure with, but if you use it you really should know what it is, I think.

 In times past, opoponax was used to unblock obstructions in the body in the organs and in the uterus, so was used as an emmenagogue. It was also used to cure fits of hysterics, as the aroma has a soothing effect which is said to open us up to our spiritual side. For centuries it was used to protect against evil of all kinds, and was used to cleanse and purify the spirit. It has been used to treat respiratory problems, and as an anti-spasmodic. Now, however its chief use is in the perfume industry and as incense. It is good combined with other spicy sweet smelling things such as rose, star anise, vanilla, amber, cloves, juniper, spikenard and patchouli among other things. You need about 10 grains of the resin for a potent smell. It is calming and worth smelling, even if you only try it once!

BASTARD BALM - A HERB WITH MANY TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES: HISTORY AND POSSIBLE HEALTH BENEFITS OF BASTARD BALM

BASTARD BALM, MELITTIS MELISSOPHYLLUM

Bastard balm clearly doesn’t care about the slur on its lineage, as it looks as though it is poking its tongue out at the world. It has orchid-like flowers which may be completely white or pink or a combination of these colours. It is very rare in Britain today, although it can be found in parts of Devon. It is a protected species, although it is much more common in mainland Europe. It can also be found in Turkey. The plant smells of new-mown hay as does sweet woodruff, because of the coumarins present in the leaves.

  It has been used traditionally in a number of European countries for a variety of aliments.

  The ancient physicians of Myddfai used it in combination with other herbs for fevers: -

“The mugwort, madder, meadow sweet, milfoil, hemp, red cabbage, and the tutsan, all these seven herbs enter into the composition of the medicine required. Whosoever obtains them all, will not languish long from a wounded lung, or need fear for his life. Any of the following herbs may be added thereto, butcher's broom, agrimony, tutsan, dwarf elder, amphibious persicaria, centaury, round birth wort, field scabious, pepper mint, daisy, knap weed, roots of the red nettle, crake berry, St.John's wort, privet, wood betony, the roots of the yellow goat's beard, heath, water avens, woodruff, leaves of the earth nut, agrimony, wormwood, the bastard balm, small burdock, and the orpine.”

They also employed it in this way, although clearly there were white and pink bastard balms in Mid-Wales at the time as this remedy calls for the “reddish” variety.

“A woman who is subject to profuse menstruation, should take the reddish bastard balm, small burdock, orpine, stinking goose foot, pimpernel, water avens, with the ashes of a hart's horns, that has been killed with his antlers on, boiling them, as well as possible in red wine, straining the liquor carefully, and drinking it daily, till it is finished, abstaining (the while) from stimulating food. Being restrained by the above means, the blood will be habitually diverted to the thighs and ankles.”

  In Italy a tea or tisane is made with it and the infusion is used as a remedy for eye inflammation. The tisane is said to have anti-spasmodic properties which could be why the Physicians of Myddfai used it in the remedy above.

  A decoction is made to get rid of kidney stones with a handful each of couch grass (Agropyron repens) which most people detest because it grows on lawns, bastard balm and the common mallow (Malva sylvestris). The whole plant of each is used including the root; these should be shopped and put in a pan with 1½ litres of water, brought to the boil and simmered for 15 minutes. The liquid will be the same colour as tea. This should be drunk over three days to get rid of kidney stones, but be warned- if you drink this your urine will be dark and tea-coloured for the first two days, but will then return to normal when the kidneys have been flushed out thoroughly.

  There have been clinical trials on this plant and some have found that it is liver protective and helps heal liver damage in vitro, although coumarins are supposed to damage the liver in large doses. A study conducted by Biljana Kaurinovic et al., published in “Molecules” Vol. 16 (pp 3152-67) on 14^th April 2011, “Antioxidant Activities of Melittis melissophyllum” states that the essential oil from the leaves has been used for its sedative, narcotic, antifungal, antibacterial and antifungal effects and that it is a muscle relaxant and spasmolytic. The leaves contain the flavonoids kaempferol, apigenin and luteolin among others. Extracts from the leaves showed antioxidant activities in vitro in this study. Another study suggests that the plant can reduce inflammation, although these are studies which have not been replicated yet.

  Traditionally the plant has been used as a diuretic, blood purifier, astringent, for wound healing, and as a sedative. It may be that further clinical trials will verify at least some of the traditional uses of the bastard balm.

TOADFLAX - BITTER HERB: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF TOADFLAX

TOADFLAX, LINARIA VULGARIS

Toadflax is rather like a snapdragon or Antyrrhinum and this common toadflax is yellow, but there are also different coloured varieties, including a blue one. Toadflax gets its name because its leaves are similar to those of flax, and toad might refer to its wide mouth or the old belief that young toads sheltered under these flowers. The Latin botanical name Linaria also refers to flax as the Greek for that plant is linon, hence Linaria. Vulgaris means common and this yellow toadflax is very common in Europe, including Britain, and in Western Asia. It was introduced into North America, perhaps mixed with grain seeds, and is now classes as a noxious weed in several states. It is a member of the Scrophulariaceae or figwort family, whose members are used for skin problems.

  Historically toadflax was used for liver and gall bladder complaints, including obstructions of the latter and jaundice. An infusion of the whole herb can also be made for skin problems and it can act as a detergent to clean wounds. In Germany a yellow dye used to be obtained from the flowers of this plant. These bloom from June or July (depending on where they grow) and continue until October. The flowers are close-lipped until a bee forces them open to get at the nectar deep inside the flower. The under lip is orange, which gives rise to the common name for this plant, Butter and Eggs.

  The English herbalist, John Gerard, writing in the 16^th century, likened toadflax to larkspur and snapdragons and wrote that an infusion was used externally as it “taketh away yellowness and deformities of the skinne.” Infusions are made with 1 ounce of the whole herb to a pint of boiling water and then the plant is left to steep for a couple of hours then the liquid can be strained and applied externally. The tisane made from this plant is extremely bitter and may be toxic; the taste gave it the name Gallwort as it was said to be as ‘bitter as gall’.

  You can harvest the whole herb just as it comes into flower and either use it fresh or dry it for later use. It can be chopped and boiled in lard to make an ointment for piles and skin problems and it is said that if it is steeped and boiled in milk and the concoction is placed where a lot of flies gather, it will kill them. So it is useful if you are bothered by flies. The whole herb can be warmed and used as a poultice for piles too.

  Traditionally the distilled water of this plant has been used to reduce inflammation of the eyes, but whether this is considered advisable now is another matter. The plant should not be given to pregnant women either because of its toxicity. It has been used for its diuretic qualities in cases of oedema and is a powerful laxative, although not as strong as jamalgota (Croton tiglium). The leaves and flowers have been used in decoctions combined with quinine, cinnamon and Peruvian bark (which comes from the Chinona species of trees as does quinine) in cases of jaundice in former times.

   In 1742 a five-spurred yellow toadflax flower was found on the Stockholm Archipelago and on investigating it, Karl Linnaeus, the Father of Botany, deemed it to be like a monster and called it “Peloria” which is ancient Greek for “monster”. This is an example of a natural mutation and was perhaps named monster because of this plant’s association with the poor toad which doesn’t have very good PR officers.

  There have been few clinical trials on toadflax, but some suggest that it has powerful antioxidant properties and it is known to contain vasicine, which is used for its bronchodilatory and mucolytic properties. It may be liver protective but this has not yet been conclusively proved.

NONI FRUIT - POSSIBLY AMAZING: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF NONI FRUIT

NONI, INDIAN MULBERRY, MORINDA CITRIFOLIA

Noni fruit has been used for medicine, as has the rest of the tree, in the Polynesian islands for more than 2,000 years, and with such a long history of use, it has to be safe for human consumption, although on some islands it is used for animal feed. One can see why it got the name Indian Mulberry as at first sight, if you don’t think of the size of the fruit, it looks like a white mulberry. The trees grow to between 4 and 16 metres high.

M. citrifolia var. potteri

  There are different varieties of noni trees and one has white and green leaves; this one is Morinda citrifolia var potteri and grows on Hawaii. There are many myths about the efficacy of the Morinda citrifolia trees and the one which illustrates the potency noni is thought to have comes from Tonga. The myth says that the leaves from the tree were placed on the corpse of the god Maui and he was restored to life.

  Traditionally the fruit has been used for a variety of purposes, the unripe green fruit is crushed and applied to sores and herpes scabs around the mouth, and mashed it is used as a gargle for sore throats. Crushed unripe fruit is also used to heal peeling skin and chaps on the hands and feet, and to get rid of parasites around old wounds as well as for oral problems including toothache; it is also used as a stimulant for the appetite and brain. It may also be used in poultices which are applied to boils, rheumatic joints and chests of TB sufferers as well as to sprains and to bring out discolouration after deep bruising. The oil from the seeds is used for stomach ulcers. Juice from the fruit is used to cleanse badly infected cuts.

  The trunk of the tree is used for canoe parts and paddles, as well as handles for axes and other implements, as well as for firewood and for the red-purple dye which can be extracted from the bark. A decoction of the bark is used in cases of jaundice. At one time scientists feared that the anthraquinones in the fruit might cause liver damage, but this was subsequently proved not to be the case.

  The infusion of the flowers is used to get rid of sties around the eyes, while the thick roots are used for carvings and to produce a yellow dye. The dyes obtained from the tree are used in batik.

  The leaves have been used as food for silk worms, and in cooking to wrap and flavour meat. They are also good for animal fodder and are placed on the head to cure headaches, burns and fevers. They are also made into a tisane or tea, and scientists agree that they are safe for human consumption.

  The unripe fruit has also been used to stop menstrual cramps and is used as an emmenagogue and de-obstructant on some islands. Oil which can be extracted from the bark was once used to get rid of head lice and other insects in the hair.

  The fruit is used as a famine food mainly although it is a staple in some diets. In South-East Asia it is eaten raw with salt as it is by the Aborigines in Australia. In some places it is cooked and eaten in curry sauces. It is a bitter tasting fruit even when ripe.

  Captain James Cook recorded seeing the fruit being eaten raw in Tahiti during his voyages in the 18^th century. Since then the world of Complementary and Alternative medicine has attempted to show that the fruit and juice of this tree has amazing health benefits, claiming variously that it can help in the treatment of addictions, ADD/ADHD (attention deficit disorders), AIDS, various cancers, jet lag and so on. None of these claims have been proven however. It is also claimed that the fruit and parts of the tree have antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties, that it can help reduce high blood pressure and reduce stress, cure chronic fatigue, and enhance the functioning of the immune system. Many of these claims have been made by the manufacturers of noni juice.

  The facts are that some new substances have been found in the tree and these are under investigation. The USFDA does not approve the use of noni for any diseases and does not recognize its effectiveness.

  Noni juice contains about half the vitamin C of a navel orange, vitamin B3 (niacin), has a lot of the minerals potassium, iron and calcium; contains rutin, which is also found in rue and which is known to have medicinal benefits, linoleic acid, and other fatty acids, amino acids, flavonoids, beta-sitosterol, carotene, catechin and alkaloids among other things. It is a member of the Rubiaceae family of plants which makes it a relation of Kadamb, cleavers, coffee, cinchonca, and a distant relation of sweet woodruff, madder and yellow bedstraw.

  It is possible that noni and the Morinda trees have amazing medicinal benefits for us, but be wary of any claims made about products from it now, as they have not been substantiated.