PELLITORY - A CULINARY HERB: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PELLITORY

PELLITORY, MOUNT ATLAS DAISY, SPANISH CHAMOMILE, ANACYCLUS PYRETHRUM

Pellitory has been used in medicine since ancient times and originates in Algeria, although it is now grown in the Himalayas (cultivated) and various other parts of the world. It can be used as a herb in stews and so on as it has a peppery taste, perhaps because of the piperine–like substance in it. It is a member of the Asteraceae/Compositae or daisy family so is a relative of marigolds, chamomile, which it resembles closely and a whole host of other flowering plants.

  Dioscorides and Pliny agreed that it was useful against intermittent fevers, while later European herbalists such as Hildegard von Bingen in her “Physica” states that it was used to get rid of waste products in the blood and to build good blood, as well as “for pure intelligence” – I am translating this straight from the Latin and this is all it says. She also writes that it is good when used in cooking for those recovering from a debilitating illness as well as for healthy individuals as it keeps ill-health away. She also says that it clears the head of mucous and clears the eyes, and aids digestion. She describes it as being a temperate herb with a dry warmth and a powerful action.(Perhaps its the European equivalent of the Intellect Tree.)

  Culpeper writing later in the 17^th century agrees in the main: -

“Government and virtues. It is under the government of Mercury, and I am persuaded it is one of the best purgers of the brain that grows. An ounce of the juice taken in a draught of Muskadel an hour before the fit of the ague comes, it will assuredly drive away the ague at the second or third time taken at the farthest. Either the herb or root dried and chewed in the mouth, purges the brain of phlegmatic humours; thereby not only easing pains in the head and teeth, but also hinders the distilling of the brain upon the lungs and eyes, thereby preventing coughs, phthisicks and consumption, the apoplexy and falling sickness. It is an excellently approved remedy in the lethargy. The powder of the herb or root being snuffed up the nostrils, procures sneezing, and eases the head-ache; being made into an ointment with hog's grease, it takes away black and blue spots occasioned by blows or falls, and helps both the gout and sciatica.”

  He also says that it resembles yarrow.

  It has also been used as an insecticide and a tonic for the nervous system. In India it is used for malaria and cholera and is given as a tonic to aid digestion. It is applied externally as a poultice or compress for a headache, and also is a traditional aphrodisiac. Some herbalists recommend it for diabetes and for erectile dysfunctions combined with other herbs such as puncture vine.

  It has been grown in Britain for centuries although Culpeper says that it needs tender loving care to flourish in the climate, and it may even have arrived in the British Isles prior to the Roman conquest of 55 BC. It has been used in a cordial in Arab countries and was familiar to the Arab physicians of the Middle Ages.

  It has been used as a gargle with cold water and honey to relieve sore throats and relieves the dryness of the mouth and promotes the flow of saliva if chewed. A tincture made from the plant has been used for toothache, either rubbed on the gums or put into a decaying tooth with a cotton wool swab.

  The root has been applied as a counter-irritant to joints and limbs afflicted by rheumatism and arthritis and it seems to affect the nerve endings as it causes redness and a tingling sensation. It was once believed that if you chewed the root regularly over a period of several months it would help sufferers of rheumatic and neuralgic pains in the head and face.

  The main active ingredient in the volatile oil from pellitory seems to be pyrethrine or pellitorin an alkaloid, along with lignans such as sesamine (also found in sesame seeds), inulin (a starchy substance), and tannins. Lignans such as those found in flax seeds have anti-inflammatory properties.

  Research is still being carried out on pellitory so we will have to wait and see what health benefits scientists say this plant has. Probably many of the old uses of the herb will prove to have scientific backing.

OYSTER MUSHROOMS - GOURMET TREATS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND RECIPE WITH OYSTER MUSHROOMS

OYSTER MUSHROOMS, PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS

I have always been a fan of oyster mushrooms, but you can’t imagine my delight when my husband came back with a couple of packets of these instead of the usual button mushrooms, or khombi as they are known here in Pakistan. I like them almost as much as chanterelles. (They are also much cheaper here than elsewhere in the world.)

  Oyster mushrooms grow on trees or wood in layers, and because they take their nutrients form their host the caps may come in different colours, dark brown, white, pink, yellow or grey. (Mine were white.) These have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 3,000 years, and of course have been eaten for much longer than that. These mushrooms may be eaten raw or cooked and have a meaty texture. You can simply cook them in butter or in an omelette, or throw them into casseroles, soups and stews without frying them first which is how I cook them. Use them in recipes which call for mushrooms without specifying the variety.

  If you have ever had a Guinness, beef and oyster pie, then you will know the texture of the oyster, and I think this is the reason these mushrooms have been given that name. They don’t really taste of oysters, and don’t really look like them, but the texture is much the same.

  All mushrooms contain ergothionine which has potent antioxidant properties, which help keep our body cells healthy and free from the ravages of free-radicals which can damage healthy cells and cause them to become cancerous. These properties also help our cardio-vascular system. Oyster mushrooms also contain lovastin which is found in cholesterol-lowering drugs. They also have antiviral and antibacterial properties, so are very good for our health as they can help stimulate the immune system.

   Oyster mushrooms contain an active compound, benzaldehyde, which has antibacterial properties, and it also has some antiviral activities too. They are a good source of B-complex vitamins, particularly riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3) as well as thiamin (B1) and pantothenic acid. As for minerals, they are good for your daily intake of iron, phosphorous, and calcium and they also contain most of the other minerals the body needs, such as zinc and selenium. They also contain some vitamin C and amino acids. They contain a little unsaturated or good fat and give you more protein per serving than meat without the fat and cholesterol, and as they don’t have to be fried, you are in a winning situation if you add them to a calorie controlled diet.

  The terpenoids in mushrooms have demonstrable anti-inflammatory properties and research in ongoing into the other health benefits that mushrooms may have. It seems that there are some polysaccharides in them which have exhibited antitumour properties, so eating mushrooms, and particularly these oyster mushrooms, can have great health benefits if you eat them regularly.

Tasty Beef and Oyster Mushroom Sauce for Pasta

Ingredients

250 gr minced (ground) beef

200 gr oyster mushrooms sliced into medium-sized pieces,

2 onions, finely sliced

3 cloves garlic, finely chopped

4 medium-sized tomatoes, chopped roughly

1 tbsp cumin seeds

1 dstsp chilli powder

1 tsp turmeric (haldi)

1 tsp coriander seeds

1 handful shredded fresh coriander leaves

olive oil

salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste

1 tbsp Worcestershire sauce (optional)

broccoli florets or spinach (otional)

Method

Heat the oil in a pan and add the cumin seeds, chilli powder,turmeric and coriander seeds, and fry for a minute.

Add the onion and garlic and fry until the onion is translucent.

Add the beef and cook until it is no longer pink.

Put the tomatoes in the pan and add about 2 glasses of water.

Bring to the boil and add the salt and pepper. Now add the mushrooms and Worcestershire sauce along with the green vegetables if you are using them.

Cook for twenty minutes and leave to settle with the lid on while you cook the pasta,

Stir in the coriander leaves, reheat and serve with pasta.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE - SUPERSTITIONS, FOLKLORE AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF MANDRAKE

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE, MANDRAGORA OFFICINARUM 

European mandrake has a long history of uses, as well as superstitions. It was not until the spread of Humanism and the Renaissance that the thinking man began to reject the lore surrounding the mandrake root and stripped bare the uses it might have.

  This mandrake is famous for its root which can be forked, and in the dim and distant past it was thought to be a root which had human forms, and to this end it was shaped into amulets by skillful carvers, to ward off evil spirits and spirit possession as well as to safeguard the owner or wearer from all ills that could possibly befall him or her. Skillful carvers often substituted bryony roots for those of the mandrake and passed them off as such, commanding high prices for the counterfeit goods.

  In the ancient world however mandrake was used for its medicinal properties, with patients in Rome (so we are told by Pliny) chewing on mandrake root prior to undergoing surgery. The root has pain-killing properties and has been used for toothaches and as a sleep inducer for those who were in prolonged pain. Small doses were given to cure depression (melancholy) and mental disturbances, although overdoses actually drove people mad.

  Hildegard von Bingen the abbess who studied herbs and medicine noted that mandrake was responsible for “illusions” while Plato recommended its use as an anesthetic and Aristotle thought it was good to induce sleep. There are cuneiform writings from Assyria, Babylon and Mesopotamia which show it was used in medicine, for a whole variety of ailments including abscesses, ulcers, labour pains, and many more.

  The ancient Egyptians used it as evidenced by its inclusion in the Ebers Papyrus dating back to around 1,700 BC, which is a list of plants and their medical uses. There are pictures of it in King Tutankhamen’s tomb, and it is clear from this evidence that it was held in high regard in ancient Egypt. It is believed to have arrived there from Palestine as mandrake or mandragora as it was known, is native to the Mediterranean, and stretches throughout the Aegean and North Africa as well as being present in the Iberian peninsula.

  Mandrake is a member of the Solanaceae family and so is a relative of Belladonna or deadly nightshade, which also makes it a relative of the tomato and potato both of which were treated with suspicion when first introduced into Europe. Mandrake although a native, had the same reputation in the Middle Ages and earlier, as the Anglo-Saxons certainly believed that it was a magical root. It was said to grow under gallows trees where murderers had been hanged, and if one dug up the root death would surely follow.

Josephus (c. 37 AD – c. 100, Jerusalem) gives the following directions for pulling it up:

“A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this the root can be handled without fear.”

  The root, because it seemed to have human form, although in fact it looks more like a gnarled carrot or parsnip, was said to scream hideously and groan when removed from the soil and anyone who heard the scream would die. If you saw the Harry Potter movies or read the books you will remember that Harry’s classmates were given ear protectors when they had to repot the mandrakes, but of course poor Neville Longbottom passed out. Clearly Ms Rowling had been influenced by the folklore of the mandrake.

   It was supposedly used in witches flying ointment too and given its narcotic properties one can imagine some poor superstitious fool drinking a potion containing mandragora and seeing witches fly.

  The whole plant is said to be poisonous, although reportedly the ripe fruit as well as the leaves are edible. There is little evidence to point to the correct dose of either, however. This is what one of the older British herbalists, Turner had to say about mandragora in his “Nieuwe Herball”

  “Of the apples of mandrake, if a man smell of them they will make hym slepe and also if they be eaten. But they that smell to muche of the apples become dum . . . thys herbe diverse wayes taken is very jepardus for a man and may kill hym if he eat it or drynk it out of measure and have no remedy from it.... If mandragora be taken out of measure, by and by slepe ensueth and a great lousing of the strength with a forgetfulness.”

  The fruit of the mandrake has been called the devil’s apple and indeed, it smells rather like an apple, even though it doesn’t really look like one. It follows the flowers which can be purple or white tinged with purple at the tips of the petals.

 In the ancient world it was reputedly an aphrodisiac and this is its claim to fame in The Bible where it is mentioned in Genesis, when Rachel used it to get Jacob to impregnate her. It is again mentioned in The Song of Songs in the Book of Solomon in the context of love-making. Medicinally it was used to cure sterility.

  It was stated by Plutarch that during the Parthian Wars, Marcus Antonius’ soldiers were poisoned by mandrakes.

  Interestingly it was the English herbalist, John Gerard writing in the 16^th century who appeared to be the first to pour scorn on the alleged magical powers of the mandrake. He wrote that they were “old wives tales” which the (then) modern man would do best to forget.

  The plant contains hyoscine which is used as a pre-operation drug and is also used to prevent travel sickness. It also contains podophyllatoxin which is currently being studied for its effects on cancers and possible use in HIV treatments.

  Ointments were made as well as infusions for use externally to get rid of skin problems such as ulcerous sores. Its leaves have cooling properties and have been employed in poultices having first been boiled in milk and placed on the skin to get rid of ulcerous sores. The root was finely scraped and pounded to a pulp then put into brandy and drunk as a cure for rheumatism. It tastes foul and has to have its flavour masked.

  It can be steeped in wine for a week with cinnamon sticks and lots of saffron and sweetened with royal jelly and honey, although with those ingredients, it would be curious as to which was most effective against any disease. I think this is an ancient remedy which has had a resurgence in popularity as people look for different psychotropic experiences.

COMMON SUNDEW - INSECTIVOROUS PLANT WITH HEALTH BENEFITS: HISTORY, USES AND MEDICINAL BENEFITS OF SUNDEW

COMMON SUNDEW, ROUND-LEAF SUNDEW, DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA

 The Common sundew is an evergreen, insectivorous, (or carnivorous) plant which is native to parts of Europe including Britain but not the Mediterranean, North America and northern Asia. It is a semi-aquatic plant, preferring to grow in moist if not wet places such as on the edges of ponds. Its main claim to fame is that Charles Darwin devoted the first chapter of his book “Insectivorous Plants” published in 1875 to the common sundew. It is one of three members of the Droseraceae family found in Britain.

    It used to have some reputation as an aphrodisiac, especially when in the cordial made by distilling the plant, which was called Rosa solis or rosolio which is thought to have first been concocted in Turin during the Renaissance. It was a golden cordial which was flavoured with cinnamon, ginger and cloves, the ‘hot’ spices believed then to have aphrodisiac qualities. It also contained grains of paradise, and red rose leaves and some of the wealthier imbibers also put gold leaf, powdered pearls and coral into it as well as musk, amber and ambergris. Culpepper writing long after it had (probably) ceased to be fashionable seems quite scathing of the cordial made from it as you can see from this extract from his Complete Herbal. It seems that Rosa solis washed down the kissing comfits made from sea holly or eryngo.

“Government and virtues. The Sun rules it, and it is under the sign Cancer. Some authors gravely tell us that a water distilled from this plant is highly cordial and restorative; but it is more than probable that it never deserved the character given of it in that respect. The leaves, bruised and applied to the skin, erode it, and bring on such inflammations as are not easily removed. The ladies in some parts mix the juice with milk, as to make an innocent and safe application for the removal of freckles, sun-burn, and other discolourings of the skin. The juice, unmixed, will destroy warts and corns, if a little of it be frequently put upon them. These are effects which pronounce its internal use to be dangerous; and if it is not productive of bad consequences, when distilled with other ingredients, for cordial waters, &c, it is because its pernicious qualities are not of a nature to rise in distillation.”

  While it is clear that Culpeper didn’t think very highly of this plant, in homeopathy it is used for respiratory problems and it has antispasmodic properties which relieve wheezing and chronic bronchitis. It has also been found to have antibacterial properties and the plant is at its most beneficial medicinally when it is in flower. It is best to harvest it just as it begins to bloom in summer. It lies dormant in winter but in spring is quick to trap an insect with its red hairs which are on the leaf, and then it slowly digests the captured insect with its enzymes which are secreted at the tip of its hairs.

   The plant contains a natural antibiotic, plumbagin, which kills a number of pathogens and it has antifungal properties too. At one time it was regarded as a cure for old age in the USA, perhaps because a vegetable extract from the plant was used to treat arteriosclerosis with colloidal silicates. Now it is believed that it can help to reduce the amount of sugar in the blood.

  The juice from the plant has been used to curdle soya milk in the cheese-making process. This is useful if you are a vegetarian. However, the plant is now much rarer than it was in the past, so don’t harvest it from the wild. You can buy seeds and propagate the sundew at home in wet peat, and this will delight children who have a fascination for insectivorous plants.

GUAIACUM OFFICINALE - PRODUCER OF LIGNUM VITAE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GUAIACUM OFFICINALE

I

GUAIACUM OFFICINALE, LIGNUM VITAE  

The flower of this tree is the national flower of Jamaica, as it is a native tree of the West Indies and the North coast of South America. Its range stretches from the Florida Keys through to Venezuela, Honduras and Panama. The Spanish explorers came across this tree in the 16^th century in the Bahamas and adopted its name from one of the indigenous languages. It is an evergreen member of the Zygophyllaceae family and grows to around 60 feet tall. It was valued for its wood which is extremely hard and durable; it is so heavy that it sinks if put in water. It has been used for construction and to make small intricate parts of grandfather clocks and precision instruments, because of its longevity.

  Lignum vitae means living wood and it is known in the West Indies as the Tree of Life. Unfortunately it was the victim of deforestation as land was cleared for sugar cane plantations; it was placed on the IUCN red list of endangered species in 1998 and despite planting new trees, it has not been removed from the list.

  Its resin, which exudes in tear-shaped is valued in traditional medicine rather like myrrh and other tree resins. This resin contains vanillin, the polytriterpenoids guaiaguttin, and the resin acids, guaiaconic, guaianetic and guacic acids along with saponins. It has been used as a laxative, diuretic and to promote sweat in fevers.

  It has been traded as a commodity since 1508 and it was much used in Europe by medical practitioners who used it to treat syphilis along with the sassafras tree and sarsaparilla. It was introduced from the West Indies into the Asian subcontinent.

  Whether or not the tree can help cure syphilis and other STDs was not questioned until the 18^th century, and it is still open to some doubt. The wood used to be used for such ailments, even sawdust and shavings were incorporated into remedies. Now however, only the resin is used.

  This resin is believed to have anti-inflammatory properties and is used for rheumatism, arthritis and gout. When this comes from the tree it is a red-brown whi9ch changes to a blue-green hue when it is exposed to oxygen, and this is used for staining and if applied to a sore tooth is said to relieve toothache. If applied externally it is used for the pains of rheumatism and so on. Taken internally it is said to lower blood pressure and to relieve gout and arteriosclerosis. It is also valued when it is made into a wash or lotion for skin diseases.

  It is an endangered species, and there are many other plants that can be used to treat skin diseases and other ailments, so its best to avoid using this tree until, at least, it is off the endangered species list.

APPLES - ONE A DAY MAY REALLY KEEP THE DOCTOR AWAY: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF APPLES

APPLES

Apple trees are members of the Rosaceae family of plants so are related to the rose, apricots, plums, peaches, almonds and so on. They can be green, yellow, red and brown, with the tartest ones having green skin. I remember the cooking apples that grew in our garden and the taste of homemade apple pies. They were a definite green, and not like that of Granny Smith’s. I particularly like the brown russet apples that my great aunt always seemed to have a supply of, but I haven’t seen any of these for years. They were a chestnut brown and slightly rough resembling a kiwi a little.

  Apples have a very long history and it is believed that dessert apples began to spread from the forests of eastern Kazakhstan around 8,000 BC as our hunter-gathering ancestors moved around the globe. Apples are mentioned in ancient mythology, and there was a magic apple in Norse myths which gave eternal youth to the person who ate it. The Gardens of the Hesperides contained apple trees and although it is not specifically stated we have believed for centuries that it was the apple which led to our fall from Paradise when Eve tempted Adam, having herself been the victim of the serpent. For centuries apples have been associated with seduction and the fall from grace.

  Dried apples were found in Queen Pu-Abi’s tomb at Ur (near modern Basra in southern Iraq), and dated to around 2,500 BC. A Chinese diplomat, Feng Li gave up his prestigious position in order to graft fruit trees, peaches, almonds, persimmons, pears and apples, to trade them much to the horror of his royal colleagues, so great was his passion for fruit; this was in 5,000BC. Later Homer mentions orchards of apples and pears in his “Odyssey” (C.800 BC) and describes King Tantalus, being tantalized by sweet figs, pomegranates, pears, apples and juicy olives which were just out of his reach. In 332 BC Theophrastus states that there were 6 varieties of apple trees, and in 100 BC the Roman poet Horace said that Italy was almost one big orchard, claiming that the perfect meal began with eggs and ended with apples. In 50 BC the Roman orator and statesman, Cicero urged Romans to save the seeds from their apples so that new cultivars could be developed. Presumably they did this as in 79 AD or thereabouts, Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History that there were 20 varieties of apple. In 200 AD Galen the physician, was singing the praises of the sweet apple as an aid to digestion and the sour one for fainting and constipation. It was in 1904 that J. T. Stinson proclaimed to a Saint Louis Symposium that “an apple a day keep the doctor away.” However it took researchers until 2000 to discover powerful new antioxidants in apples when the University of California announced the results of research undertaken there.

  Apples contain phytonutrients which combined with the relatively small amount of fibre they contain work to help prevent spikes in blood sugar levels. The polyphenols in apples help to promote the secretion of insulin in the pancreas and increase the absorption of glucose from the blood. The constituents in apples lower blood fats when the apple is eaten whole that means including the skin. The apple’s skin contains most of the phytonutrients with red apple skin having anthocyanins and yellow ones carotene. Apples work to balance the bacteria in the digestive tract and research is ongoing into this activity.

  Research has shown that eating whole apples can help prevent or delay age-related macular degeneration (eye disease) as well as help to prevent lung cancer and asthma, although research is ongoing into the effects apples have on asthma symptoms. It is believed that the bioflavonoid phloridizin in apples may prevent bone loss and so help with osteoporosis. Apples can also help prevent neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, so perhaps an apple a day may really keep the doctor at bay, if not away.

  One bad apple really can damage the whole lot, as when an apple is bruised it releases relatively high amounts of the gas, ethylene which contaminates all the other apples, so remove any decaying apples from storage.

  Apples contain some vitamin C, some of the B-complex vitamins including B1, 2 and 3 as well as B6, vitamins E and K and folate. As for minerals they include calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, potassium and a little sodium. They also have Omega-3 and -5 fatty acids along with amino acids and lutein, zeaxanthin and choline.

  Apples have found a place in Cockney rhyming slang, with “apples and pears” meaning “stairs”, which illustrates how common apples are. There other expressions which show the value we have placed on apples, with one being “the apple of one’s eye” meaning something or someone who is thought very dear and valuable perhaps someone who can do no wrong.

   Apples have captured the imagination of poets since Homer’s time and Robert Frost wrote several poems about apple orchards and apple picking which are very vivid and illustrative.

  You can cook apples, as in apple pie, which is a favourite dish on both sides of the Atlantic. Apples can be made into jam and preserves, pickled and made into cider. They can be served with meat (apple sauce with goose or pork) and can be put into fruit salads and on breakfast cereals as well as being good with natural yoghurt and honey along with other fresh fruit and nuts such as walnuts. Personally I like to eat whole apples and these are much better both nutritionally and health-wise for you than having applesauce or apple juice. This is mainly because most of the health-giving properties of an apple are contained in their skins.

SASSAFRAS TREE - COMES WITH A HEALTH WARNING: HISTORY AND USES OF SASSAFRAS

SASSAFRAS TREE, SASSAFRAS OFFICINALE OR S. ALBIDUM 

The sassafras tree can be a bush-sized plant or a sixty foot tree and is native to North America. It has a long history of use by Native Americans who passed on its uses to the early colonists. It may have been discovered by the Spanish explorers in Florida in the 1560s. They took it back to Spain and used it as a remedy for syphilis and rheumatism among other ailments, but its use has been disputed for centuries.

  Its root was official in the British Pharmacopoeia and in the German one, but in 1960 its oil was banned as a food additive by the USFDA because it contains safrol which caused liver cancer in rats in laboratory experiments. Later sassafras root bark and leaves were banned but now commercially produced sassafras tea has the safrol removed, but it is not possible to do this at home. The oil is also thought by some to have abortifacient properties.

  In the past a tonic was made from the root and it was used along with the young shoots, to flavour root beer in the States. The root and berries, which are a lot like those from the cinnamon tree, were used as flavouring in soups and stews, and the winter buds and young leaves were also eaten raw.

  Sassafras trees have been cultivated in Britain at least since the early 17^th century valued as an ornamental in some gardens for their autumn foliage. It is a member of the Lauraceae family, making it a relative of the bay tree. Its root bark oil was used to make cheap soap and perfume, while the superior oil from the fruit was used for the more expensive perfumes. A yellow dye is obtained from the bark and wood of the tree.

  In the late 19^th century sassafras tea, with milk and sugar was sold in the early mornings on the streets of London, and was called ‘saloop,’ which is a far cry from salep made from saffron and still drunk in Turkey in the early morning.

  The twigs and branches contain mucilage which used to be used as a poultice for eye problems or as a wash for sore eyes, and was also used for chest, liver and kidney problems.

  Traditionally the oil was used for menstrual problems, to relieve the pains following childbirth and as a remedy for gonorrhoea. Combined with Guaiacum officinale and sarsaparilla it was used as a cure for gout, rheumatism and a number of other ailments, externally to relieve the pain of these inflammatory diseases. The oil is a narcotic and can cause liver failure and death.

  The tisane or tea is supposed to be good for menstrual problems and as a general tonic, blood purifier and many other properties have been ascribed to it, but there is no clinical evidence to support its traditional uses.

GREATER BURNET SAXIFRAGE: LITTLE USED NOW: HEALTH BENEFITS AND HISTORY OF USES OF GREATER BURNET SAXIFRAGE

GREATER BURNET SAXIFRAGE, PIMPINELLA MAJOR (OR MAGNA) 

This plant is in the same genus as its smaller relative, lesser burnet saxifrage and like it, is no relation to either burnet or saxifrage. They are both members of the Apiaceae or Umbelliferae family of plants and so are related to carrots,dill, fennel, cow parsley, angelica and anise which is in the same genus of Pimpinella. It is similar in most respects to its smaller namesake and used for much the same purposes, with the seeds mainly being used in powder form for flatulence and to calm colicky pains.

  It is native to the Balkans parts of Europe including Britain and to Scandinavia and the Caucasus region. This burnet saxifrage grows to heights of around three feet and spreads up to two feet. Its leaves are larger than those of its lesser relative and the flower heads are bigger.

  Wtriting in his herbal in the 17^th century Nicholas Culpepper says that the herb was used as a wound healer as in this passage from his Complete Herbal:-

“Government and virtues. It is under the Moon. The roots of Burnet Saxifrage are hot and dry, carminative expelling wind, and are good for the colic, and weakness of the stomach; they are likewise diuretic, and useful aginst the stone and gravel, as also for the scurvy. They possess the same properties of the parsleys, but in provoking urine and easing the pains thereof, are much more effectual. The roots or seed used either in powder or decoction, help the mother, procure the courses, remove tough phlegm, and cure venom, &c. The distilled water thereof, boiled with castoreum, is good for cramps and convulsions, and the seed used in comfits (like carroway seeds) will answer the same purposes. The juice of the herb dropped into grievous wounds of the head, dries up their moistures, and heals them.”

  Nowhere did I find the lesser burnet saxifrage mentioned as being used as a wound healer.

  However it would seem that this pant, like the lesser one, can be used in a tisane made from the chopped root, dried or fresh, which can also be used to clear the skin of blemishes and rejuvenate older skin. This one is not seemingly used for culinary purposes, the lesser one being the herb of choice in the past. However in most ways it can be used as its smaller relative if you can’t find that one.

LESSER BURNET SAXIFRAGE - USEFUL HERB FOR HEALTH AND COOKING

LESSER BURNET SAXIFRAGE, PIMPINELLA SAXIFRAGA

Lesser burnet saxifrage is not a relative either of salad burnet or indeed, other burnets, nor is it a saxifrage. The leaves look a little like those of burnet, but the white umbels or cluster heads of the flowers distinguish this plant from burnet at a quick glance. It is actually a member of the Apiaceae or Umbelliferae family of plants and closely related to caraway, dill, fennel, sweet Cicely and cow parsley among many others. Like the saxifrages is has had a reputation as being good against gravel and stones in the organs. It is native to some parts of Europe and Asia and is a native of the British Isles. It can grow to heights of three feet and have a spread of two feet.

  In traditional systems of medicine it has been used for stomach ailments and to aid digestion; it has also been used for liver and kidney disorders and urinary infections. It is valued in the treatment of respiratory diseases and soothes bronchitis, asthma and laryngitis. The leaves and roots have antispasmodic properties and are astringent, god for getting rid of flatulence and also they have been used to promote sweating in fevers, as well as a diuretic. Like silverweed it is used for painful menstruation and stomach cramps, and in vitro in one lab experiment the essential oil from the roots seemed to have anti-cancer tumour proliferation properties. However, trials are few and far between on the uses this plant could be put to. One study conducted by scientists from Serbia and Montenegro in 2006 showed that extracts of this plant had antibacterial properties.

  The seeds are edible and have been used as a condiment and also have been sugar-coated and eaten as confectionary. The essential oil from the root has also been used to flavour sweets.

  Bunches of the herb were hung at one time in casks of beer and steeped in wine to make it taste better and a schnapps has been brewed from the herb. The leaves and young shoots are edible and have a mild peppery taste, with hints of parsley and cucumber.

  Nicholas Culpeper writing in his Complete herbal in the 27^th century had this to say of lesser burnet saxifrage:-

“it is under the dominion of the Moon. The whole plant is of a binding nature; the leaves are sometimes put into wine to give it an agreeable flavour, and the young shoots are a good ingredient in sallads. Saxifrage is a cordial and promoter of sweat. The root dried and powdered, stops purgings: and a strong decoction of it, or the juice of the leaves, is good for the same purposes.” (In other words it is good for diarrhoea thank to its astringent qualities.

   The root is used as an expectorant in coughs and congestion and is mildly astringent and anti-inflammatory. If chewed it is said to relieve the pain of toothache. A lotion made from the root is said to rejuvenate ageing skin and distilled water of it is used as an eye wash.

  The herb has been cultivated for culinary purposes as well as medicinal ones in the past, although it is not commonly used these days. It is best to harvest the plant in July and the roots in spring or autumn. They can be dried for later use and used in tisanes to help diffuse stones and dispel gravel, as well as to calm the stomach. The dose is 1 oz of the fresh herb to 1 pint of boiling water taken at intervals during the day. Leave the herb to steep in boiling water for 15 minutes before straining and drinking.