BAOBAB TREE - THE TREE OF LIFE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF BAOBAB TREE

BAOBAB TREE, ADANSONIA DIGITATA L. BAOBAB

There are eight species of baobab tree, one in Australia, six in Madagascar and this one which has made its home in the African savannah, and can be found in twenty Sub-Saharan countries in Africa. It has been used by Africans for millennia for food, medicine, ropes and mats as well as beverages and was a subsistence food. It still is for some, but since 2008 when its was approved by the EU as a Novel Food, and then in 2009 when the dried fruit pulp got approval as Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) by the USDFA, things are slowly changing. Phytonutrient, a non-profit making organization has helped Africans use the fruit of the baobab tree to rise out of poverty by harvesting the gourd-like fruit and selling it to commercial enterprises which use the dried pulp in health supplements and in some foodstuff. It has been used in fruit bars and smoothies and can actually be used to cook with, if only the fruit could be transported. In some countries such as Malawi, there are sustainable projects with people encouraged to plant more baobab trees, but this is certainly a long-term investment, as the trees take many years to mature.

  The baobab tree is a member of the Bombacaceae family of plants, so is related to Bombax ceiba, the red silk cotton tree which grows in Asia and to the durian, the favourite fruit of many Thais.

  At one time scientists thought that the mighty baobab trees were in danger of extinction, because the young trees do not resemble their older relatives. Now we know that the baobab isn’t under any immediate threat, but that was before the Western world hailed the fruit as “King of the Superfruits”. (Superfruits include the mangosteen, kiwi fruit and pomegranates, among others.) The fruit tastes a little like a jackfruit or a melon, which you have to peel and discover the marshmallow-like fruit hidden in sinewy fibres. The fruit contains six times as much vitamin C as an orange, according to National Geographic and has twice as much calcium as cow’s milk. It is also rich in minerals such as iron, phosphorous and magnesium as well as being potassium rich, making it good for the health of the brain, nerves and muscles. It also contains some of the B-complex vitamins and vitamin A.

  It has been used in traditional African medicine for fevers, malaria, vitamin C deficiency, stomach ailments and upsets, and a multitude of other ailments. The young leaves are eaten as a vegetable, like spinach, and the fruit can be cooked with meat, poultry and fish according to some gastronomes.

  One tree, known as the Big Baobab has had its interior made into a bar, and can hold 60 people or more. That must be the world’s ultimate bar and can be found at Sunlands Nursery in the Limpopo province of South Africa. The tree has been dated as being 6,000 years old (at least) making it one of the oldest trees on the planet, as it was around when our iron Age ancestors roamed the African grasslands (which the savannah was at the time).

Bar inside Baobab

  There are many legends about this tree, explaining its name of “upside-down” tree. It was thought that God was offended by the tree and so planted upside down as a punishment. In winter the branches of the tree stretch skywards just as roots burrow into the ground. The flowers bloom at night and it is unwise to pick them as if you do, so the superstition goes, a lion will rip you apart. It is said that spirits dwell in the flowers. Other superstitions say that if you soak the seeds of the fruit in water and then drink it you will be invincible and strong as a lion. The water, thus drunk will also give protection from all evil.

  Elephants, monkeys and baboons feast on this fruit and the flowers are pollinated by bats and bush-babies which inadvertently carry pollen with them on their fur. This pollen is used as glue, while later the seeds can be pressed to make cooking oil or eaten raw or roasted. When powdered they can be used as a thickener for soups and stews too. They can also be ground after roasting to make a coffee-like drink. It is known as the “Tree of Life” because of all the benefits it has for the locals and wild life.

  The dried fruit pulp is being used in cosmetics and hair-care products as well as in food stuff, and it is to be hoped that we do not over-harvest this tree which has been a source of life for Africans for millennia.

GROUND IVY - USE THIS WEED FOR HEALTH: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GROUND IVY

                                                       GROUND IVY, GLECHOMA HEDERACEAE

Ground ivy is no relation to true ivy (Hedera helix) although it is a creeper and provides ground cover as the name suggests. Rather ground ivy is a member of the Labiatae or Lamiaceae family which makes it a relative of mint and oregano. Like its relatives it can be added to stews for its mild peppery flavour or eaten raw in salads or cooked as you would spinach. A tisane can be made with it mixed with vervain and then with added honey. It is a native of Europe including the British Isles and Asia, spreading through western Asia to Japan.

  It is also known by other names such as Alehoof, which is an allusion to its use in brewing beer as it was used to make this beverage clear until the 16^th century when hops were introduced into Britain. It is also called Gill-in-the-ground, and this comes from the French guiller meaning to ferment beer. Because of the name Gill it also became known as Hedgemaids as Gill was a name for a woman or girl. A tisane called Gill tea (no tea involved) can be made with one ounce of the chopped whole herb (above-ground parts including the flowers) to one pint of boiling water. This can be left to infuse until cool and drunk in small cupfuls throughout the day if flavoured with honey, sugar or liquorice, if you have a cough or cold, as it contains vitamin C.

  The whole herb is best gathered in early may when the flowers are new, and then it can be dried for later use. The leaves are said to have some resemblance to a cat’s paw and this has given rise to the name Catsfoot for this plant with its flowers that look rather like violets.

  In the past the expressed juice of the plant was sniffed through the nose and used for headaches when all other remedies had failed. The dried leaves were also powdered and used as snuff to clear the sinuses. The essential oil of this plant contains both rosmarinic and ursolic acid; the latter is believed to have anti-viral properties. In the limited clinical trials that have been conducted with extracts of ground ivy, it is thought that it might have anti-inflammatory properties.

 It has been used for chest complaints and with yarrow or chamomile flowers as a poultice for abscesses tumours and other skin problems.

  John Gerard the 16^th century English herbalist had this to say about ground ivy: -

  “it is commended against the humming noise and ringing sound of the ears, being put into them, and for them that are hard of hearing. Matthiolus writeth that the juice being tempered with Verdergrease is good against fistulas and hollow ulcers. Dioscorides teacheth that "half a dram of the leaves being drunk in foure ounces and a half of faire water for 40 or 50 days together is a remedy against sciatica or ache in the huckle-bone (hip)."

 Culpepper writing in his “Complete Herbal” in the 17^th century agreed with John Gerard on the whole but added the following information about this herb: -

 “a singular herb for all inward wounds, ulcerated lungs and other parts, either by itself or boiled with other like herbs; and being drank, in a short time it easeth all griping pains, windy and choleric humours in the stomach, spleen, etc., helps the yellow jaundice by opening the stoppings of the gall and liver, and melancholy by opening the stoppings of the spleen; the decoction of it in wine drank for some time together procureth ease in sciatica or hip gout; as also the gout in the hands, knees or feet; if you put to the decoction some honey and a little burnt alum, it is excellent to gargle any sore mouth or throat, and to wash sores and ulcers; it speedily heals green wounds, being bruised and bound thereto.”

The Welsh Physicians of Myddfai used ground ivy in this remedy for intermittent fevers:

“The following is a good medicine for this class of diseases: take moss, ground ivy, or elder, if obtainable, (if not obtainable, caraway,) and boil these two vegetable substances well together. Then take the mallow, fennel, pimpernel, butcher's broom, borage, and the young leaves of the earth nut, and bruise them as well as possible, putting them on the fire with the two herbs before mentioned, and boiling them well. This being done, let elder bark be taken from that portion of the tree which is in the ground, - let it be scraped and washed thoroughly, and bruised well in a mortar. Then take the liquor prepared from the fore-mentioned herbs, and mix the said bark therein assiduously between both hands, and set it to drain into a vessel to acidify, fermenting it with goat's whey, or cow's whey. Let a good cupful thereof be drank every morning as long as it lasts, a portion of raw honey, apple or wood sorrel, being taken subsequently in order to remove the taste from the mouth, after the draught. This liquor is beneficial to every man who requires to purge his body.

  A further remedy was this one: -

“For an opacity of the eye. Let some ground ivy juice be put therein, and the opacity will be removed, the eye becoming spotless and clear.”

Another remedy was this one: - “For a speck in the eye, put therein the juice of the ground ivy.”

 For fevers they recommended the following treatment: -

“But if a man has indeed an obstinate ague, cause him to go into a bath, and let him avoid touching the water with his arms. Let him also take ground ivy, boiling it briskly, and apply hot to his head. He must also be bled in his arm, and he will be cured by the help of God.”

  Ground ivy has been used in traditional medicine for centuries, but few clinical trials have been conducted with it.

OX-EYE DAISY, SMALL HERB WITH MANY USES: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE OX-EYE DAISY

OX-EYE DAISY, LEUCANTHEMUM VULGARE

The ox-eye daisy is native to Europe including the British Isles and the Russian parts of Asia, including Siberia. It is also known by a variety of other names including Maudlinwort, Dun Daisy, because of its association with the thunder god Odin, and goldenseal as well as marguerite and Moon daisy. It is a relative of the more common daisy, and was introduced into North America where it has now become naturalized and an invasive weed. It is a member of the Asteraceae or Compositae family of plants and has been used for centuries in folk medicine. Its other Latin name is Chrysanthemum leucantheum which comes from the Greek chrisos meaning golden and anthos meaning flower, while leuka means white. It is normally between one and two feet high but can grow up to three feet.                                                                                                              

  In Wales in the Middle Ages it was used to cure insanity, treat smallpox and for jaundice and skin diseases. The daisy and the ox-eye had a very special place in Celtic folklore as it was thought that the daisies were the reincarnation of children who died during childbirth, put on Earth to give comfort to grieving mothers.

  The ancient Greeks dedicated the ox-eye daisy to Artemis the goddess of women and used it for ‘female complaints’ such as menstrual disorders. A tisane of the flowers of the ox-eye daisy is said to relieve stomach cramps as does chamomile, another relative.

  Later Christianity chose to adopt the flower as the one which symbolized St. Mary Magdalene and this became corrupted to maudlin, so the plant was known as maudlinwort in the 5^th century and earlier.

  The English herbalist, John Gerard writing in the 16^th century had this to say of the ox-eye: -

  “Dioscorides saith that the floures of Oxeie made up in a seare cloth doe asswage and washe away cold hard swellings, and it is reported that if they be drunke by and by after bathing, they make them in a short time well-coloured that have been troubled with the yellow jaundice.”

  It was used for jaundice by country people for centuries, as a decoction drunk with ale.

Culpepper, writing in the 17^th century in his “Complete Herball” writes that it is

“a wound herb of good respect, often used in those drinks and salves that are for wounds, either inward or outward' . . . and that it is 'very fitting to be kept both in oils, ointments, plasters and syrups.' He also mentions that the leaves, bruised and applied reduce swellings, and that

“a decoction thereof, with wall-wort (wall flowers) and agrimony, and places fomented or bathed therewith warm, giveth great ease in palsy, sciatica or gout. An ointment made thereof heals all wounds that have inflammation about them.”

  The Iroquois tribe of Native Americans used the herb for fevers, and for these made a tisane out of the flowers and leaves. In Britain the leaves were used in an infusion to relieve chronic coughs such as whooping cough and catarrh, but honey should be added to give it a better flavour if you are thinking of using this remedy. However if you are allergic to daisies or nasturtiums and other members of the Asteraceae family, don’t use it! The leaves are edible and taste a bit like Kos lettuce. The leaves are best eaten in spring before the flowers bloom and they are recognized because the ones that grow in a rosette at the base of the plant have long leaf stems (petioles) which are spoon-shaped with rounded teeth edges. The flowers are also edible.

 The distilled water of the flowers has been used as an eye wash for conjunctivitis (pink eye) and a poultice of the whole plant can be applied to the skin for a variety of skin problems, as mentioned by Culpeper. In North America the root has been employed for night sweats and consumption.

  However the whole plant contains an acrid juice which makes the herb bitter and makes it smell a little like valerian. The seed casings of the ox-eye daisy contain pyrethrins which are natural organic compounds that can be utilized as a natural insecticide, so the common ox-eye has many useful properties.

WILD RICE - GLUTEN-FREE GRASS SEED: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF WILD RICE

WILD RICE ZIZANIA PALUSTRIS/AQUATICA

Wild rice isn’t technically rice, although it can be used like rice in pilafs and so on, but a grass seeds, with rice being a close cousin in the Poaceae or Gramineae family. This means it is also related to sorghum, oats, barley, rye, wheat, maize, sugar cane and millet. Zizania palustris grows in Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin in the US and in Canada in Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Zizania aquatica is native to the Saint Lawrence River, and the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the US. There is Zizania texana which grows in the Saint Marcos River, but this is close to extinction because of loss of habitat and pollution. The fourth type of wild rice (there are only four known) is Zizania latifolia or Manchurian wild rice, which is native to China.

  Wild rice gets its name from the way it grows; early settlers and explorers in North America were reminded of the way rice grows in paddy field when they saw the stems rising out of the water of the Great Lakes and French explorers in Canada called it “folles avoine” or ‘crazy oats’ allegedly because of the strength and hardiness of the Native Americans who lived in the woods. It was a staple of many Native American tribes and was gathered during the period of the “rice moon” in August to September then fermented for a week or two in the sun, so that it got its distinctive black colour. Unfermented rice varies in colour from tan and green through to mid-brown and black.

  Native Americans used it like brown rice in poultices for burns and scalds as well as for stomach problems and heart, lung and liver diseases.

  Wild rice has the edge on brown rice as far as its nutritional benefits go, with traces of vitamin A, and small amounts of vitamins E and K with the B-complex vitamins, B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), folate, pantothenic acid, choline and B6. It also has all 18 amino acids but is low in lysine, but a good source of Omega-3 fatty acid and Omega-6. As for minerals it is high in phosphorous and potassium, with a good amount of magnesium and also calcium, iron, sodium, zinc, copper and selenium. It is a good source of fibre and antioxidants, and helps to lower blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels.

  Wild rice became fashionable in the late 1960s and early 1970s when people began to think about food and health benefits. It was later used in Nouvelle Cuisine distinguished by small pretty portions. It has a nutty, slightly peaty flavour and a chewy texture. People usually cook it in pilafs along with brown rice both for its different flavour and texture as well as to make the dish look more attractive. When it is fully fermented you have the aroma of black tea, while if it is unfermented it smells more like green tea.

  To cook wild rice, you use 1 part wild rice to 3 of boiling water. Add the wild rice and bring the water back to the boil, then reduce it to a simmer and cover the pan. You will need to cook it for about 45 minutes or until it starts to burst open. Because it takes longer to cook than rice, you should cook them separately for the best results and combine them later, fluffing up the pilaf with a fork. You can fry onions, garlic and celery to mix with it and wilt some spinach or other leafy green vegetable in olive oil and mix into the rice. Sage and thyme are good herbs to use when you cook wild rice and adding some paprika is also good, but experiment and see for yourself what goes well with it. You can combine it in our biryani recipes too, so bon appetit!

PRIVET - NOT ONLY FOR HEDGES: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PRIVET

PRIVET, LIGUSTRUM VULGARE

We once had a privet hedge instead of a garden wall, but it didn’t recover after a very heavy snowfall and bad winter sometime in the 1960s in Britain. Privet is a semi-evergreen, and grows wild in Britain, the rest of Europe and North Africa. It is a medium to fast-growing shrub so was popular at one time as a hedge, although it has now been overtaken in the hedge stakes by Ligustrum ovalifolium which is apparently a more reliable evergreen species.

     In Britain its main claim to fame is that along with the Ash tree (Fraxinus excelsior), it is a member of the olive family of plants, the Oleaceae, of which only these two species are native. Wild privet is an invasive weed in North America, New Zealand and Australia and it has been banned from sale and cultivation in New Zealand because its pollen exacerbates asthma and eczema in sufferers of those ailments. The berries contain toxic substances although these usually only provoke vomiting and more often no symptoms at all are reported. The leaves can also provoke allergic reactions if taken internally, although at one time they were used as a stomachic, as was the bark of bigger plants.

  The leaves have astringent properties and can help cleanse wounds as they have detergent actions too. As well as this they can assist in wound healing, if they are bruised.

 The black or purple berries which form clusters are poisonous to horses and as they contain lignan glycosides, saponins, and seco-iridoid bitter substances these are deemed to be responsible. Unfortunately they are attractive to children too, as are the berries of the deadly nightshade.

  Despite the toxins the plant contains the Physicians of Myddfai employed privet in some remedies as this one shows:-

   “The mugwort, madder, meadow sweet, milfoil, hemp, redcabbage, and the tutsan, all these seven herbs enter into the composition of the medicine required.  Whosoever obtains them all, will not languish long from a wounded lung, or need fear for his life. Any of the following herbs may be added thereto, butcher's broom, agrimony, tutsan, dwarf elder, amphibious persicaria, centaury, round birth wort, field scabious, pepper mint, daisy, knap weed, roots of the red nettle, crake berry, St. John's wort, privet, wood betony, the roots of the yellow goat's beard, heath, water avens, woodruff, leaves of the earthnut, agrimony, wormwood, the bastard balm, small burdock, and the orpine.”

  Nicholas Culpeper writing in the 17^th century also believed that privet could be beneficial and wrote this about the shrub:-

 “Government and virtues. The Moon is lady of this. It is little used in physic with us in these times, more than in lotions, to wash sores and sore mouths, and to cool inflammations, and dry up fluxes. Yet Matthiolus saith, it serves all the uses for which Cypress, or the East Privet, is appointed by Dioscorides and Galen. He further saith, that the oil that is made of the flowers of Privet infused therein, and set in the Sun, is singularly good for the inflammations of wounds, and for the headache, coming of a hot cause. There is a sweet water also distilled from the flowers, that is good for all those diseases that need cooling and drying, and therefore helps all fluxes of the belly or stomach, bloody-fluxes, and women's courses, being either drank or applied; as all those that void blood at the mouth, or any other place, and for distillations of rheum in the eyes, especially if it be used with tutia.”

  While Culpeper refers to the ancient uses of this shrub, he also points out that it was used in his day too. Times change though and the privet is no longer even used as much as it once was for a hedge.

OLEANDER - POISONOUS BUT A POSSIBLE SOURCE OF CANCER TREATMENT: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF OLEANDER

OLEANDER, NERIUM OLEANDER, KANER IN URDU 

You may not recognize the name but you will probably recognize this poisonous plant with its pink, white or red flowers which bloom from May to October, depending on where you live. It graces the roadsides in Greece, Sicily, Italy, Portugal, Pakistan (where it is still in bloom now although it is the end of November), the state of California in the US and other countries. It is useful because it seems not to mind the pollution; it is tolerant of salt and drought and prevents soil erosion as it has long, thick tap roots. It has naturalized in so many countries that no one is sure where it originated, although it might have come from South West Asia.

  Whenever I see these bushes growing in the middle of the motorways here in Pakistan I am reminded of Greece, both the mainland and the islands where these flowers abound. They also remind me of Steely Dan’s “Countdown to Ecstasy” album and the lyrics of “My Old School”. In other words I feel nostalgic when I see them.

  The oleander is toxic although not many deaths have been attributed to it, although I’m told that the seeds are particularly useful as a poison as it is not always noticed. Because all parts of this plant are toxic it is not recommended to use it as firewood or skewers for barbecues. It is poisonous for people and animals if ingested, but has been used in traditional medicine systems for centuries.

  Oleanders have leaves which look a little like those of the olive tree, but they are not related as the oleander is a member of the dogbane family or Apocynaceae family. It is believed to be the onotheras of Theophrastus who believed that the root when given to someone in wine improves their temper and makes them “gentle and cheerful.” Pliny concurred with Dioscorides that it could be an antidote to the bites of serpents, and this is what Dioscorides says of oleander in his De Materia Medica Book IV page 82 which was written in the first century AD.

  “Nerion, which some call Rododaphne, some Rhododendron . . . grows in enclosed greens and sea-bordering places; in places near rivers. But ye flower and the leaves have a power destructive of dogs; of Asses; of Mules; and of most four-footed living creatures, but a preserving one of men, being drank with wine against the bitings of venemous beasts; ye more if you mixed it with Rue, but ye more weak sort of living creature, as goats; sheep, die, if they drink ye maceration of them.”

  John Gerard the 16^th century English herbalist tells us what Galen another ancient physician said about oleander, but omits to give credit to Dioscorides, if we compare the two pieces of text they are much the same. Gerard could be considered guilty of plagiarism. Here is what he wrote about oleander:-

"This tree being outwardly applied, as Galen saith, hath a digesting faculty; but if it be inwardly taken it is deadly and poisonsome, not only to men, but also to most kinds of beasts.

The flowers and leaves kill dogs, asses, mules, and very many of other four footed beasts: but if men drink them in wine they are a remedy against the bitings of Serpents, and the rather if Rue be added.

The weaker sort of cattle, as sheep and goats, if they drink the water wherein the leaves have been steeped, are sure to die."

  Oleanders were depicted in Roman murals quite frequently along with bay trees and myrtles. One famous mural is that in a subterranean chamber of Livia’s Villa in Porta Prima, Italy.

  In different traditional medicinal systems oleanders have been used in poultices to relieve backache; the fruit has been applied to the body to promote sweat in poultices according to the Hortus Sanitatis a 15^th century herbal. It also says that the flowers provoke sneezing so could be used as snuff was. It was once believed that the plant was fatal to head lice and fleas.

  The macerated leaves were applied topically to promote hair growth and for syphilis symptoms and other skin diseases. Oleander has been used by herbalists for centuries to treat all kinds of illnesses from skin problems, to epilepsy, to induce miscarriages, as emetics and heart tonics. A decoction of the leaves has been used for gingivitis and oral problems. The plant contains the cardiac glycosides oleandrin and oleandrigenin which can be toxic when ingested, but they seem to boost the immune system of cancer patients when given in small controlled doses. It is believed that oleandrin might have antineoplastic activity and so can help in our fight against cancer.

  It has, in recent years been hailed as an alternative cancer treatment as the first phase of clinical trials have been a success reportedly. The US FDA has said that extracts of the leaves are safe enough to be administered orally and has approved clinical testing, which is now in its second phase as of 2011. Oleander contains cardiac glycosides which are the substances being investigated.

  As with aak (Calotropis procera) this plant can be fatal, but it can also be beneficial to our health.

  

RICE (ORYZA SATIVA) - A STAPLE FOOD FOR MANY: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF RICE

RICE, ORYZA SATIVA 

Rice is a descendant of wild grasses and belongs to the Poaceae or Graminaceae family of plants along with wheat, maize (sweet corn), sorghum, millet, rye, oats and barley, among others. It is widely cultivated in the Asia and Pacific region where it is a staple food in 17 countries. It is also a staple in 8 countries in Africa and 9 in North and South America. There are more that 8,000 varieties of rice grown around the world and these are grown in various ways, including, of course in paddy fields in countries which have the monsoon season. Rice is the main food source of energy for more than half the world’s population. However for a balanced diet, pulses such as lentils, leafy green vegetables such as brussel sprouts and kale, and meat need to be added to it.

  Rice provides the world’s human population with 20% of its dietary energy supply, while wheat provides 19%, and maize 5%.

  Polished white rice has few nutrients left in it and for the sake of health and nutrition one should eat brown rice which is simply rice which has been hulled, in other words the bran and germ layers which contain the essential vitamins, minerals and Omega-3 and

-6 fatty acids, as well as the phytonutrients and amino acids are left intact.

  Writing her “A Modern Herbal” in the 1930s Mrs. Maud Grieve said: -

“The chief consumption of rice is as a food substance, but it should never be forgotten that the large and continued consumption of the white, polished rices of commerce is likely to be injurious to the health. The nations of which rice is the staple diet eat it unhusked as a rule, when it is brownish and less attractive to the eye, but much more nutritious as well as cheaper.”

  She clearly could see how things were going and warned then that white rice was not very nutritious. However it has since been the rice of choice in the West. Black rice, or Forbidden rice is also nutritious as is Bhutanese red rice, grown in the Himalayas, but brown rice is readily available, although now, it is not as cheap as white rice as it was in Mrs. Grieve’s day as it has become labeled “macrobiotic “ and “organic” which makes it more expensive than the highly polished white rice.

  Rice is believed to have originated in China and primitive agricultural tools and remains of rice dating back to circa 8,500 BC have been found in the Yangtze River basin in China, showing how long it has been a cultivated crop there. Archaeological remains discovered in the Indian subcontinent only date back to c. 2,000 BC. It arrived in Greece and other parts of the Mediterranean basin from Syria via Arab traders. It was also introduced early into East Africa, and much later to the US. The Spaniards introduced it to South America in the 17^th century, as it had been taken to Spain by the Moors in the 8^th century. The Crusaders had later taken back to France with them; and so it travelled around the globe.

  Today there are several main types of rice which can be found on supermarket shelves:-

·        Arborio or Italian rice which is used to make risottos.

·        Basmati rice which is long-grained and used in biryanis and other rice dishes on the Indian subcontinent because of its delicate nutty flavour and the fact that the grains stay separate.

·        Sweet rice which is sticky and glutinous

·        Jasmine rice which may be brown or white, and which is aromatic due to the jasmine flowers in it.

·        Bhutanese red rice grown in the Himalayas which has a nutty earthy taste.

·        Black rice (as mentioned above) which is purple when cooked

There are other short-, medium- and long-grained rices too and here in Pakistan we can buy ‘broken rice’ which is cheap Basmati and which can be used in dessert dishes, flavoured with rose water and with coconut, sultanas and pistachio nuts or almonds added to it (much more interesting than a British rice pudding).

  Rice is used in traditional systems of medicine for upset stomachs and diarrhoea. In Greece lemon juice may be added to it, or it is served plain and boiled. Rice can be boiled, drained, allowed to cool then mashed to form a paste which is applied to boils, sores, swellings and pimples in the Indian subcontinent. The sticky, gelatinous variety of rice is used here for stomach upset, heart-burn and indigestion.

  Clinical trials have shown that extracts of brown rice may be effective in treating breast and stomach cancers and trials are still underway. It is thought that brown rice can help lower cholesterol levels in the blood, so can help prevent heart disease and arteriosclerosis among other diseases. It is also thought that brown rice can help to lower the risk of Type-2 diabetes and heart disease.

  Brown rice contains significant amounts of selenium which assists in DNA repair in cells and which has potent antioxidant actions. It helps to decrease the symptoms of asthma and the pain and inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis. There are also large amounts of manganese present in brown rice, and this assists hormone production, and also has powerful antioxidant actions.

  Brown rice also contains some of the B-complex vitamins including B1 and 3, pantothenic acid, folate, choline and betaine. As for minerals it has apart from those mentioned above, it has calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, sodium, potassium, phosphorous as well as 18 amino acids including lysine and tryptophan. It also contains a little vitamin E in the form of Alpha Tocopherol and vitamin K.

  Annapura is the goddess of rice in Indian mythology, and gets her name from anna which is Sanskrit for rice. For Hindus rice is also associated with the goddess Lakshmi, who is the goddess of wealth and prosperity. It is also a fertility symbol. Annas were also the currency of the Indian subcontinent before rupees, so the word for money was ‘rice.’ There are also associations of rice with the Buddha as he was given rice and milk by a poor woman, so the story goes, and it is given now as an offering to him. Turmeric coloured rice is thrown over newly married couples in Indian wedding ceremonies, and rice flavoured with saffron and topped with gold leaf is also served at weddings, as yellow is the colour of happiness.

  In some parts of India symbols and patterns are traced on thresholds and floors in rice powder or made with paste so that the household has good luck. This tradition is centuries old, and is still practised today. Rice paste is also used in the dyeing process on cloth in India. There are festivals held all over Asia when rice seeds are sown, when the seedlings are planted and when the harvest is gathered in.

  Rice extracts can be found in medicines and cosmetics, as it is believed that they can add to the volume and thickness of hair, so they are used in shampoos and other hair-care products, as well as in moisturizing creams as it moisturizes and is said to have anti-ageing properties. A mixture of rice starch and honey is used by some women to reduce the shine on their faces.

  To cook brown  rice, you need one part rice to two of water and it should be washed thoroughly and cleaned then allowed to soak for 20 minutes to half an hour before draining the water and cooking with salt.

  You will find many recipes on this site which use rice including one for rice pudding and a chicken ball soup if you would like to try some.

PIGNUTS (EARTH NUTS) -ALLEGEDLY APHRODISIAC: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PIGNUTS

EARTH NUTS, PIGNUTS, CONOPODIUM MAJUS 

Pignuts are so named because pigs love to find these, as do European Brown bears. They grow in woodland in Europe and in Britain seem to love to grow in bluebell woods. You can find them all year round, but they are easier to spot in spring and summer when you can see their feathery leaves and white flower heads (umbels). They are members of the Apiaceae or carrot family, so are related to anise, caraway, celery, dill and parsley. If you go foraging for them you will have to dig about 20 centimetres down to get at the small “nuts” which are tubers with long thin roots growing around them. You have to rub the outer skin from them to eat them but they can be eaten raw or cooked (you can add them to dishes as you would water chestnuts or sangaray). They taste rather like sweet chestnuts, although some say that they are like Brazil or hazel nuts or perhaps sweet potatoes. The “nut” can grow to 3 cms in diameter although most I’ve seen have been smaller than that. If you find them they indicate that you are in ancient grass or woodland.

  In the UK they have been found at archaeological site, at the Bronze Age Barrow Hills and Mile Oak, which shows that they were known as a food source by our early ancestors. The discovery of them at Barrow Hills might also indicate that they were used in rituals.

  They were clearly known in Shakespeare’s day as he has his ‘monster’ Caliban tells Trinculo (a drunken servant) that he will show him the delights of the island which include these ‘nuts’.

  “Caliban: I prithee, let me bring thee where crabs grow,

                 And I with my long nails will dig thee pignuts.”

   (Act II scene ii The Tempest)

John Gerard, writing in the 16^th century tells us that there was a “Plaister made of the seeds” of the plant, but he rather coyly declines to continue as regards the use it was put to. This mystery was later (probably) solved when Nicholas Culpeper writing in his Complete herbal in the 17^th century points out that the nuts were aphrodisiacs and stimulated “venery” or lust. He calls these “Earth chesnuts” and says this: -

“They are called earth-nuts, earth-chesnuts, ground-nuts, ciper-nuts, and in Sussex pig-nuts. A description of them were needless, for every child knows them.

Government and virtues. They are something hot and dry in quality, under the dominion of Venus; they provoke lust exceedingly, and stir up to those sports she is mistress of; the seed is excellent good to provoke urine; and so also is the root, but it doth not perform it so forcibly as the seed both. The root being dried and beaten into powder, and the powder made into an electuary is as singular a remedy for spitting and pissing of blood, as the former chesnut was for coughs.”

  The Physicians of Myddfai do not mention this but used them in this way: -

“Peritonitis is treated by means of an emetic, the blue confection and a medicine. These are the herbs required (for the medicine ;) the sweet gale, bay leaves, pimpernel, male speedwell, river startip, borage, moss, liverwort, the young leaves of the earth nut, and the mallow.”

They also used it in treatments for intermittent fevers as this remedy shows:-

”The following is a good medicine for this class of diseases : take moss, ground ivy, or elder, if obtainable, (if not obtainable, caraway,) and boil these two vegetable substances well together. Then take the mallow, fennel, pimpernel, butcher's broom, borage, and the young leaves of the earth nut, and bruise them as well as possible, putting them on the fire with the two herbs before mentioned, and boiling them well. This being done, let elder bark be taken from that portion of the tree which is in the ground,-let it be scraped and washed thoroughly, and bruised well in a mortar. Then take the liquor prepared from the fore-mentioned herbs, and mix the said bark therein assiduously between both hands, and set it to drain into a vessel to acidify, fermenting it with goat's whey, or cow's whey. Let a good cupful thereof be drank every morning as long as it lasts, a portion of raw honey, apple or wood sorrel, being taken subsequently in order to remove the taste from the mouth, after the draught. This liquor is beneficial to every man who requires to purge his body.”

  They don’t mention the aphrodisiac qualities but it makes sense that Shakespeare’s Caliban would have enjoyed them if they had such a reputation as he was a portrayal of the baser side of human nature.