WHAT IS LOQUATS? LOKAT , ERIOBOTRYA JAPONICA: LOQUATS HEALTH BENEFITS, USES AND HISTORY: HOW TO MAKE LOQUAT TISANE

LOQUATS, LOKAT, ERIOBOTRYA JAPONICA

Loquats are originally native to southeastern China, but were introduced to Japan and the Indian subcontinent so long ago that they have become naturalized there. They grow in the Punjab province of Pakistan and in Khyber-Pakhtoonkwa (formerly the North West Frontier province). They grow in Greece and Turkey where they are called Yeni Gun or New Day. In Pakistan they are called lokat. The name comes from the Cantonese, luh kwat which literally means “rush orange”. Chinese immigrants are believed to have taken them to Hawaii.

   They were first described to the western world in 1690 by Kaempfer a botanist, and Thunberg elaborated on his description after a visit to Japan in 1712. The trees were planted in the National Gardens in Paris in 1784 and plants were transported from Canton to London to be planted in the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew in 1787. By the 1870s they were common in California where they were planted as ornamental small-fruited trees.

 By 1818 they were being grown in greenhouses in England and can be grown outside in sunnier places such as Cornwall.

Loquat tree

   The fruit are rich in potassium, iron and calcium and the seeds contain amygdalin which is also in the skin, linoleic, palmitic, and oleic acids. The leaves contain traces of arsenic, tannins, triterpenes, vitamin B and ascorbic acid, and the young leaves contain saponins. (You should use these in tisanes so that they will help lift your mood.)

   The fruit acts as a sedative and can stop vomiting and prevent thirst, while infusions of the dried, powdered leaves, relieve diarrhoea, depression, and counteract intoxication from alcohol. You can make hot leaf poultices for swellings such as tennis elbow and sprains. The tisane can be used for skin diseases, or a paste can be made from the leaves and applied to the skin to get rid of rashes, pimples and irritation. However the main uses of the tisane are to relieve coughs, warm the body and help ease sore throats.

  You can make strawberry and loquat sauce, by just hulling the strawberries and peeling and stoning the loquats then liquidizing them adding a liqueur of your choice to taste if the sauce is too thick for your purposes. You can make a crumble with them too, simmering the peeled stoned fruit with a little water and sugar for 10 mins then transferring it to an oven-proof dish and topping with 4-6 oz flour mixed with 2-3 oz butter and rubbed together until they become breadcrumb like; then add a little sugar. Mix and pour over the fruit. Cook in a moderate oven until golden brown on top (about 20-30 mins) and serve with ice cream or whipped cream.

 

LOQUAT LEAF TISANE

Ingredients

15 gr dried loquat leaves or 60 gr. fresh young leaves,

gur or jaggery to taste

3 cups water

Method

Wrap the leaves in muslin or a piece of thin cotton, put in a pan with the water and bring to the boil. Turn the heat down and simmer for 30 mins.

Add the gur or jaggery and simmer until this has melted.

Drink a cup a day to get rid of a cough, cold or ease a sore throat. It’s also good for the stomach and lungs (apparently), if taken regularly.

This has Taste and is a Treat(ment).

CAPERS - KABER - CAPPARIS SPINOSA BENEFITS, USES AND HISTORY: PIQUANT CHICKEN WITH CAPERS RECIPE

CAPERS, KABER, (CAPPARIS SPINOSA)

The name caper comes from the Latin, capra meaning goat, so either this is because they smell strongly or goats like them. Maybe it’s a combination of both as capers are pungent and astringent. Spinosa means spiny as the bush they grow on has thorns. They are believed to have originated in dry areas of West or central Asia, but they grow in abundance in the Mediterranean region. It could be that the name capparis comes for Kypros the Greek name for the island of Cyprus where they grow prolifically.

   They are the edible bud of the caper bush picked immediately before they flower and preserved in oil, vinegar or brine. Like the buds of the kachnar tree, they taste very good. The fruits or berries can be eaten too, and tender young shoots including the immature small leaves can be eaten as a cooked vegetable. The mature fruits can also be cooked and eaten as a vegetable, but the capers we generally eat are the flower buds, bought in a jar from the supermarket.

  I have picked wild capers in the Sibylline hills in Italy and eaten the fresh leaves and shoots, and this was close to where the Sibyl was supposed to have lived; in the Marche region close to Tuscany.

   Pliny mentioned capers, (23-79 AD), writing that the best ones in the Roman Empire came from near the Sea of Galilee. Dioscorides also mentions them remarking that they were a cash crop for the Greeks. Some of the best capers I have tasted came from the Cycladic Island of Santorini or Thera.

   The fruit are edible and eaten raw in the Eastern parts of India as an appetizer. We can use them as appetizers too, as they are great deep fried for 30 seconds and served with black Kalamata olives with drinks.

   The dried rind from the fruits has antiseptic properties and is used in the subcontinent to polish silver and gold items and in Ayurvedic medicine parts of the caper fruit and bark are used to cure flatulence, improve liver functions and as an anti-rheumatic. Infusions and decoctions of the root bark are used to treat anaemia, arthritis and gout. Traditionally the caper bush parts have also been used to improve kidney functioning and in the treatment of osteoporosis.

   The oil from the seeds contains mainly oleic acid linoleic acid and smaller amounts of palmitic and steoric acid. Capers have antioxidant properties and are believed to be hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and phyto-protective, so they are very good for us, even though they can only be eaten in small quantities.

   There is some evidence that capers have been used in cookery since before the times of the pharaohs in ancient Egypt. They are good in rocket salads and some people have used marsh marigold buds as a substitute for them, but the best substitute is nasturtium buds, although they are not really as good as capers. You can use them as an edible garnish for dishes and they go well in piquant fish and meat sauces, and are a good addition to a potato salad.  There are many recipes using them with fresh and smoked salmon too. You can also add them to relishes and pickles. Rinse them before using them when you get them out of the jar though.

PIQUANT CHICKEN WITH CAPERS

Ingredients

Serves 4

4 halves of chicken breasts, pounded until very thin

1 large onion, thinly sliced

4 garlic cloves, thinly sliced

1 glass white wine

2 tbsps lemon juice

2 tbsps capers

2 oz butter

olive oil

freshly ground black pepper

1 tsp dried oregano

salt to taste

Method

Put flour, black pepper, oregano and a little salt in a plastic bag and shake to mix, then add chicken a piece at a time and coat evenly with the flour mixture.

Melt butter with the oil and fry the chicken pieces for 3 mins each side or until they are golden brown.

Remove chicken pieces and add onion and garlic to the pan and fry until cooked. Then add the liquids and stir so that all the brown bits are incorporated into the liquid. Cook for 2 mins then serve over the chicken and pasta of your choice.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

WHAT IS LUBAN? FRANKINCENSE ( BOSWELLIA CARTERII / SERRATA): FRANKINCENSE USES AND HISTORY

FRANKINCENSE, LUBAN (BOSWELLIA CARTERII / SERRATA)

Frankincense is the dried gum of the frankincense tree, Boswellia carterii, or serrata, (the Indian frankincense tree).These are the main trees of the Boswellia genus used for their sweet-smelling gum which, when dried, pounded and burned makes incense as used by Hindus and the Roman Catholic church in their rituals. It was highly prized in the ancient world and was more valuable than gold. It is probably best known because the Three Wise Men or Magi, of Kings, took gold, frankincense and myrrh as gifts to the new-born Jesus. It seems that academics are now wondering if the ‘gold’ described in the Bible was in fact Balsam oil which was “more expensive than gold” in the ancient world. It would make sense if the baby had been presented with precious oil as well as the two other resins which were so valuable in the ancient world. It seems that balsam trees are now extinct though, so we may never discover the truth of the gift of ‘gold’ as given to Jesus.

Frankincense tree

  However this is about frankincense or Olibanum as it is also known, so I’ll try not to get distracted. The Urdu word for frankincense, luban clearly comes the Arabic al-luban meaning ‘the milk’ which refers to the colour of the highest quality frankincense, which is milky tree sap which exudes from the cut bark of the frankincense tree and allowed to dry onto the tree before it is collected. By that time it is a hard resin. It comes in different shades which depend on the season in which it is gathered. It is whiter in autumn, and gets darker as the season changes to spring. It can be a pale lemon colour, or pale green and pale or dark amber. It is harvested two or three times a year and the best frankincense comes from young trees.      

   As for the English word frankincense there is some debate surrounding its origins. It was believed to mean the incense of the Franks, and they were reputed to have taken it back to Europe with them after the crusades. It may mean pure kindling as franc means pure or abundant in Old French, and the Latin, incensus means to kindle or begin to burn.

  It is and was native to Oman, Somalia and Yemen, and it is still cultivated in those countries today. It doesn’t need much soil to grow, is more of a large shrub than a tree, and grows out of marble rocks on the Somali coast. The frankincense tree-growing area in Wadi Dawkah and the remains of the caravan oasis of Sisr/ Wubar, with the affiliated ports of Khor Rori and Al-Baleed in Oman were very important trading posts and routes in the ancient and mediaeval world. The ports and oasis are outstanding examples of mediaeval fortified settlements in the Persian Gulf area and were listed by UNESCO in November 2000 and are on the World Heritage list.

 The best frankincense is still said to come from Oman and Yemen .In 300 BC frankincense was much more valuable than gold (the metal) and it has been used for over 5000 years for spiritual healing. In ancient Egypt it was used in the embalming process, and was used in religious rituals especially in the worship of Ra the sun god and Utchat the sacred, primeval all-seeing eye that burned with judgment. The Egyptians imported the trees in 1480 BC in attempts to grow them in Egypt, but they didn’t flourish because of the rain, which they do not enjoy. They get their water from moisture in the air.

   Frankincense was used in the homes of the ancient Greeks and Romans to perfume the air. The Assyrians and the Babylonians also used it in their religious ceremonies, and later it was adopted by the Jews, and of course the Roman Catholic Church. In ancient Rome, myrrh was 5 times, more expensive than frankincense, which was much more popular and used in religious and state ceremonies. Pliny mentions that frankincense was an antidote for hemlock but knowing that didn’t help Socrates.

   In Iran in the 10^th century Ibn Sina (Avicenna to Westerners) says that it was used for a variety of ailments including vomiting, diarrhoea, fever and tumours. In China today it is still used to treat leprosy, gonorrhea, and other illnesses. It is also used there as incense as it is elsewhere.

  Like sandalwood its aroma has soothing properties and it is used to treat anxiety, paranoia, feelings of guilt and confusion and the grief of mourning. It contains sesquiterpenes which help stimulate the brain’s limbic system and the hypothalamus (which controls the release of some hormones into the body). These are the primitive parts of the brain which are associated with emotions. In Europe frankincense is being investigated to discover if it assists in bone growth.

   It is mentioned in the Bible many times and this extract is from The Song of Solomon”:-

       “Who is this coming up from the wilderness

          Like palm-trees of smoke,

         Perfumed with myrrh and frankincense?”

        “Till the day doth break forth,

           And the shadows have fled away,

           I will get me unto the mountain of myrrh,

          And unto the hill of frankincense.”

Herodotus who lived in the 5^th century BC said this: -

          Arabia is the only country which produces frankincense, myrrh, cassia and   cinnamon…the trees bearing the frankincense are guarded by winged serpents of small size and various colours.”

 But Herodotus loved a good tale and believed in the phoenix and other mythical beasts. We know that frankincense was traded in the Middle East at least since 1500 BC and then found its way to China, where it was first mentioned in 500 AD in the Mingyi Bielu (miscellaneous records of famous physicians) saying that it was used for mourning the dead. It was also mentioned in the Ebers papyrus dating from the 6^th century BC in prescriptions and recipes for them.

   It was and is used in Egypt as kohl, with women using the charred resin from frankincense to blacken their eyes. They also used it as a depilatory and make a paste from it and other ingredients to perfume their hands. It is also widely used in perfumes and in toiletries for men. The Roman Catholic Church use this recipe for their incense: - 10 ounces of frankincense, 4 ounces of benzoin and 1 ounce of storax chopped into small pieces, mixed together and burned.

    Frankincense can be made into pastilles and chewed to sweeten the breath and an inhalation of the steam can be used to help bronchitis and laryngitis. It also has many other medical uses and has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries to cure ulcerative colitis and asthma. In Arab nations it is chewed as a gum and if you suck on a granule of Olibanum it will relieve nausea. You can soak two or three small lumps of the resin in water, and then drink the strained liquid to help with stomach disorders, ulcers and inflammatory conditions such as arthritis. It has been used in folk medicine as a uterine tonic in pregnancy and during labour. However when ingested there might be side effects which can include diarrhoea, skin rashes and nausea, but this would only happen if you ingested a large quantity of frankincense. If you inhale the smoke, or just the perfume, you will be able to breathe more deeply and feel the claming benefits of the incense. It is said in a legend that God gave Adam gold, frankincense and myrrh as compensation for being kicked out of the Garden of Eden.

   Modern medical research has found that “The evidence for the effectiveness of Boswellia serrata extracts is encouraging, but not compelling.” This means that Professor E Ernst was not prepared in 2008 to say definitely that frankincense is useful for treating asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, osteoporosis or collagenous colitis. However in the same year it was reported in the Arthritis Research and Therapy Journal that osteoarthritis sufferers’ pain decreased after 7 days of being treated with enriched extract of Olibanum or Frankincense. It probably can assist in the diseases it has been used for treating for centuries, but modern medical research has been slow to undertake trials to prove that it can work. They do say that it seems safe though, although it could make some people feel nauseous, and could cause a mild stomach upset.

  It certainly smells good and can lift your mood, so buy a few incense sticks and waft them around your home this winter!

  

WHAT IS ARABEE? JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES: A POOR MAN' S VEGETABLE: PUNJABI - STYLE ARABEE RECIPE

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES, ARABEE IN URDU, (HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUS)

These roots vegetables have a curious history as regards their name. They actually have nothing to do with Jerusalem, as they come from North America where Native Americans cultivated them. Their name actually comes from the Italian, girasole meaning turning to the sun, as sunflowers do. They are a relative of the sunflower and are also known as Sunflower artichokes and in the US Sunchokes. They were called Girasola articocco in Old Italian, but are not an artichoke (carccofi in modern Italian).

   They arrived in France sometime in the early 17^th century, courtesy Samuel de Champlain who found them growing in Cape Cod in 1605 and sent them back to his native France. The French took to them and used them in soups and as accompaniments to beef. They love them so much still that the Jerusalem artichoke was named “best soup vegetable” in the 2002 Nice festival which celebrated the heritage of French cuisine. In Germany they are made into a spirit called Topinambur, or Topi (Topinambur was a European name for the tuber which suggests it was a poor man’s root). It was called the “Poor man’s vegetable” during World War II as they were grown widely along with swedes (rutabaga) to make up for the lack of other fresh vegetables. It is said that when these roots were first seen by American colonists they were at first shunned because they looked like the deformed fingers of lepers.

   John Gerard mentions them in his “Herball” of 1636 and they were cultivated in British gardens, but not grown on a commercial scale. They taste a little like a water chestnut, as they have a nutty flavour, but they should be cooked carefully as otherwise you might suffer from flatulence. They are very tasty though whether cooked with meat or as a vegetable dish.

   These arabee roots are sold for most of the year in Pakistan and we love them. The recipe below is one of our favourites. Not only do they taste good but they are also good for our health.

   They contain inulin, which is not a starch, so they are different from other root vegetables such as potatoes. Inulin is converted to fructose (rather than glucose) in the body which can be tolerated by diabetes sufferers. Jerusalem artichokes can also be made into flour which is good news for people who have an allergy to wheat and other grains.

   Medical research has decided that a medical product made from Jerusalem artichokes, Helianthus tuberosus D1 helps in the treatment of obesity. They actually contain Vitamin A, Thiamin (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Pantothenic acid (B5), Pyridoxine (B6), Folate (B9), Vitamins C and E, and a whole lot of other nutrients including potassium, iron, selenium, Omega-6 fatty acids and trace elements. In other words they are very good for our overall health and boost the immune and nervous system, combat apathy and depression, support the muscles and improve concentration. All this in one delicious little root.

PUNJABI - STYLE ARABEE

Ingredients

½ kg Jerusalem artichokes

1 tbsp salt

1 large onion, chopped

200 gr tomatoes, peeled and chopped

6 cloves garlic, finely chopped

1 inch ginger root, peeled and cut into slivers

6 green chillies, finely chopped

2 tbsps fresh lemon juice

1 handful fresh coriander leaves, shredded

1 tbsp garam masala

1 tbsp cumin seeds

1 tbsp ajwain or thyme

1 tbsp chilli powder

1 tsp turmeric

1 tbsp coriander seeds, crushed

10 black peppercorns, ground to a powder

salt to taste

1 cup oil or ghee

Method

How to prepare the Jerusalem artichokes: peel the roots and cut into quarters. Rub the tablespoon of salt into them and leave for 10 minutes. Wash the arabee thoroughly in cold water and dry.

 Heat the oil in a pot and fry the onion, ginger and garlic until they start to change colour. Add the Jerusalem artichokes, and fry for three minutes, then add the chopped tomatoes, and all the spices. You won’t need to add very much salt because the roots will still have salt absorbed during the preparation. (Do not add the fresh coriander and lemon yet.) Cook them until the tomato juice has thickened. Add 3 glasses of water; cover the pot and cook on a low heat for ½ hour, stirring frequently.

   Remove from the heat and add the lemon juice and coriander, stir well, cover and leave to stand fro 5 mins.

Serve with roti (chapatti) or naan.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

   

QUINCE FRUIT: QUINCE LEGENDS: QUINCE HEALTH BENEFITS, USES AND HISTORY: PICKLED QUINCES RECIPE

QUINCE (CYDONIA VUGARIS)

The quince seems to cause some confusion, so let me say here that we are writing about the quince which is a fruit, originating in the Caucasus region and Iran, where it still grows wild. Its Latin name was Pryus cydonia, but it is now known by the Latin name Cydonia vulgaris. There is a shrub called japonica or Japanese or flowering quince in English, but this is Chaemomeles speciosa in Latin and not to be confused.

  Quinces look a little like pears but are hard and have a dry, sour, astringent taste when eaten raw. They are best cooked and known as ideal fruit for making jellies and marmalade. They have a high pectin content, especially the seeds, so ideal for these purposes. Quince jelly is a dark orange or brown colour and made in Greece and Portugal. They also make wonderful preserves of quince in these two countries. In Iran and the Middle East quinces are used with meat for example in the tagine dishes of Morocco they go well with lamb.

quince jelly

   Scholars believe that quinces were in fact the “golden apples” which were the fruit of the Forbidden tree in the Garden of Eden and the ones that Atalanta found so enchanting in Virgil’s work. It is believed that Paris gave Aphrodite a quince and it is considered to be her fruit and that of her Roman counterpart, Venus. She is often depicted with one in her right hand. Some wall-paintings and mosaics in Pompeii have a bear holding a quince in its paw. Plutarch mentions quinces as being shared by a bride and groom in the bridal chamber, and the ancient Greeks threw them into bridal chariots. The bride would nibble on one to sweeten her breath before entering the bedroom. The best variety of the ancient world reputedly came from the Greek city of Cydonia which was on the north coast of Crete and is now Chania. Quinces are still cultivated in the area.

They became symbols of love and fertility in the Middle Ages when they were also served at wedding feasts.

   Edward Lear the British nonsense rhyme poet lived for years in Greece and perhaps that’s why in his rhyme “The Owl and the Pussy Cat” the unlikely honeymooners “dined on mince and slices of quince.” Peter Quince was one of the rustics in Shakespeare’s “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, so quinces were known in Britain in the 17^th century.

   You can actually eat some quinces raw, but if you do you should sprinkle them with lemon juice as the react badly to the air just like avocados and go brown quickly.

   They are filled with vitamin C and antioxidants so they help the body absorb calcium and iron and fight free radicals which damage the cells and also help protect against some cancers. They contain the minerals calcium, iron, copper, manganese, phosphorous, potassium, and the B-complex vitamins, niacin (B3), vitamin B6, and Folate (B9).The syrup made from the fruit is useful for diarrhea, and a decoction of the seeds is used in traditional medicine to help in cases of dysentery, and gonorrhea. It is thought that they may have potent anti-viral properties and be beneficial for gastric ulcers. The juice is a tonic, antiseptic astringent and diuretic. It aids digestion and lowers cholesterol if you eat quinces and drink the juice regularly. The potassium contained in them helps to regulate high blood pressure. The antioxidants help control your stress levels and the fruit is good for anaemia sufferers, and for asthma and cardiovascular disease. In Peru quinces are given to people suffering from altitude sickness and vomiting.

PICKLED QUINCES

Ingredients

3 medium-sized quinces,

750 ml cider vinegar

400 gr sugar

12 juniper berries

8-10 black peppercorns

1 bay leaf torn

Method

Pour the vinegar into a stainless steel pan with the sugar, juniper berries, black peppercorns and bay leaf, and bring to the boil. Turn down the heat and let it simmer while you peel core and halve the quinces. Cut them into 5 pieces lengthways and then lower them carefully into the pan. Cook for 20 – 25 mins or until the quince pieces can be easily pierced with a skewer.

Remove the pan from the heat, lift out the pieces of fruit and put them into clean storage jars. Cover them with the liquid, seal and allow to cool.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

KUMQUATS: KUMQUATS HEALTH BENEFITS, USES AND HISTORY: HOW TO MAKE KUMQUAT TISANE

KUMQUATS (FORTUNELLA JAPONICA)

Kumquats come into their own around Christmas time, when they are frequently preserved in brandy or pickled. You can eat them raw, skins too although they have a tart flavour.You can also find candied kumquats. They are believed to be native to China, as there are references to their cultivation in manuscripts dating back to 1176 AD.

   They were brought back from China to London by a plant explorer, Robert Fortune, a Scot who was employed by the Royal Horticultural Society, in 1846. He brought back the Nagumi variety which is the one most often cultivated in the sunnier states of the USA. They have been grown in pots and in greenhouses as ornamental plants, as well as eventually for their fruits since the mid 19^th century, when all things “exotic” were swooped upon by the fashionable gentry in Britain and the US.

   Their Chinese name means “gold orange” and the trees are bought as New Year gifts to symbolize good luck in male-female relationships. They are also good luck symbols and in Japan bonsai kumquat trees are given as gifts at New Year.

   At first they were classified as Citrus but Dr. Walter T. Swingle transferred them to the Fortunella category in 1915 in honour of Robert Fortune. There are moves to remove them to the Citrus group once again though, as they are citrus fruits.

   Kumquats can rarely be grown successfully from seed, as they do not grow good firm roots. Instead they are grafted onto citrus root stocks, such as lemons. When you see them in the shops around Christmas time they usually have their leaves attached, a sign of the festive season, rather like mistletoe, holly and other evergreen sprays, a throwback to our pagan past when we celebrated the winter solstice quite differently.

   They are high in vitamins and trace elements, and contain many of the B-complex vitamins as well as Omega-3 and -6 fatty acids. They are high in potassium and vitamin C and are good to cure colds. They are believed to be useful to heal wounds, for general oral health, and they boost the immune system and improve general health, with the vitamin C promoting the absorption of calcium and iron by the body. They can protect the cardiovascular system and reduce the pain in arthritic joints.

  You can make a hot drink with kumquats which is good for getting rid of a cold. Wash 10 kumquats and cut them in half. Squeeze the juice out of them into a teapot, add the halves and pour boiling water over them. Let the kumquats steep for 5 mins, covered and drink, sweetened with honey or gur (jaggery).

BRANDIED KUMQUATS

Ingredients

1 lb kumquats

¾ lb sugar

brandy

Method

Layer the kumquats and sugar in a Kilner or Mason jar and cover them with brandy, leaving 1” at the top of the jar. Seal the jar and turn it upside-down once a day for a week to move the sugar which sinks to the bottom. Put the jar back in its original upright position each time.

   After a week you can leave it for two months in a cool dark place and serve with amoretti biscuits and cream.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

WHAT IS JAMALGOTA? CROTON TIGLIUM: A POWERFUL LAXATIVE AND BIO - FUEL

JAMALGOTA, CROTON TIGLIUM AND JATROPHA CURCA(S)

Jamalgota is the Urdu name for the medicine from the two plants, Croton tiglium and Jatropha curca or curcas. The crushed leaves of jamalgota, Croton tiglium, are mainly used as a laxative for very persistent constipation, and are one of the most potent laxatives known to man. Croton tiglium is native to Pakistan, India, New Guinea, Indonesia and China and grow wild all over the Philippines. Traditional healers use this plant for many purposes, but they have knowledge which the layman does not have and know the doses and mixtures which make plants health giving rather than deadly. Four seeds of Croton tiglium can kill an adult, and 15 will kill a horse.

 These hakims or healers use the plant for treating gastroenteritis, throat problems, for abortions, eczema and mastitis. Applied externally, the crushed leaves which are the laxative part of the plant are applied to snake bites. The oil from jamalgota contains an insecticide and is a skin irritant.

   The oil from Jatropha Curcas is used to get rid of cancerous skin growths. However it can also contribute to them. The latex from this plant contains the alkaloid jatrophine which is being investigated for its possible anti-cancer properties. It is applied on the skin to cure various diseases and as a treatment for rheumatism. The twigs from the plant are used to clean the teeth, and the root juice to treat piles. The roots of Jatropha curcas are used to treat snake bites. 

The bark produces a dark-blue dye. The tusser silkworm is rather partial to its leaves, apparently. The fruit and wood from this tree is used as fuel.

      The oil cannot be used as a food until it goes through an expensive detoxification process so it is an ideal candidate for making bio-fuel. It was used in Madagascar, Benin and Cape Verde as fuel during the Second World War. Now it is cultivated as an oil crop in South America and elsewhere, and the by-products can be made into high quality paper, soap, cosmetics, toothpaste and embalming fluid. It can also be found in cough medicines and is used as a moistener in tobacco. After the oil has been extracted the seed cake can also be used as fertilizer. Because the seed contains 25-30% oil, and the kernel between 50 and 60% oil it makes the plant ideal for producing bio-fuel. It is an oleic-linoleic oil as it consists of 42.8% oleic acid and 32.8% linoleic acid. There are plans to cultivate the plants in Pakistan for bio-fuel as exporting and using it domestically would be very beneficial to the economy.