BUCKWHEAT - A FALSE GRAIN AND GLUTEN FREE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF BUCKWHEAT: RECIPE BUCKWHEAT BALLS

BUCKWHEAT, FAGOPYRUM ESCULENTA OR F.SAGITTATUM

Buckwheat is not, as its name suggests a true grain, being the seed of a fruit; as such it is gluten-free and can safely be eaten by people with an intolerance to gluten which is found in cereal grains such as wheat. Buckwheat is a member of the Polygonaceae family of plants which makes it a relative of sorrel, rhubarb, Yellow dock, Red dock and common dock among others. It is a native of Asia and spread along the ancient trade roots into Pakistan and Afghanistan where a weedy species of tartary buckwheat (still grows wild in fields of oats, barley and rye. Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tatoricum ssp. potanini) is a weedy variety which grows in the Indus Valley area and is called braw or brow in the local language of Baltistan.

   Buckwheat is rich in the flavonoid, rutin, a phytonutrient also found in the herb rue which is known to dilate blood vessels, so reducing capillary permeability and lowering blood pressure. It extends the action of vitamin C so to use buckwheat to its full health potential eat it with foods rich in vitamin C such as broccoli, brussel sprouts and carrots. Because it lowers blood pressure, buckwheat is a heart-healthy food and can help reduce the risk of cardio-vascular disease. It also assists in the treatment of varicose veins.Buckwheat also seems to help regulate blood sugar levels according to some studies.

  Apart from rutin, buckwheat contains all eight essential amino acids including lysine and ten others, and is rich in the minerals potassium, phosphorous and magnesium, and also contains selenium, zinc, copper, calcium and iron, as well as sodium. Vitamin B -complex vitamins are also present and these include B1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. It is also a source of Omega-3 and -6 fatty acids. These substances have potent antioxidant properties so can help fight the scavenging free radicals in our bodies which can damage healthy cells and lead to cancers. Buckwheat is high in dietary fibre, so it works to keep the digestive system healthy too.

  Buckwheat has been cultivated in China since the 10^th century and was introduced to Europe and Russia in the 14^th and 15^th century, when it was known as ‘Saracen’s corn’ as it is believed to have come to Europe when the Crusaders returned from the Middle East. It was introduced into the US by the Dutch at some time during the 17^th century.

  In Eastern Europe it has been used to make porridge or ‘kasha’ and blinis which are small buckwheat pancakes eaten with caviar. (They are good with smoked salmon, scrambled eggs, chives and crème fraiche too.) In Italy buckwheat is sometimes used to make gnocchi and pasta too, as it can be ground into dark or light flour. In France crepes are made from them.

  The name buckwheat comes from the Dutch ‘bockweit’ which means beech wheat, so named because of the shape of the seed which resembles a beech nut. The seeds are triangular in shape and can be any colour between tan-pink and dark brown. They can be roasted in which case they have an earthy, nutty flavour or unroasted, these seeds have a more subtle flavour.

   To cook buckwheat you should rinse it thoroughly under cold running water, and then use one part of buckwheat to two parts of liquid, either stock or water. This makes a good porridge or soup if you add some of the vegetables mentioned above, or any others rich in vitamin C. You need to bring the liquid, with the buckwheat in it, to the boil and then turn down the heat and simmer it far half an hour until the buckwheat is tender.

  Buckwheat has been used as flour mixed with buttermilk to promote a nursing mother’s milk flow, but there is a problem with it as it can cause light-sensitive dermatitis and itchiness.

  I first came across buckwheat in the early 1970s and this is a recipe I loved then

DEEP-FRIED BUCKWHEAT BALLS

Ingredients

2 cups buckwheat groats soaked overnight in 3 cups of water

2 -4 peeled grated carrots, depending on the size

1 large onion, finely sliced

4 cloves garlic, finely chopped

thyme

basil or oregano

1 oz ground, hulled sunflower seeds or melon seeds

1 beaten egg to bind the mixture

salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste

oil for deep-frying

Method

Drain the buckwheat and blend it a little, still retaining fairly large pieces, with the rest of the ingredients.

Mix in the egg and make into small balls.

Heat the oil to the same temperature needed to make French fries or chips, and drop the balls in one at a time.

You need to cook them for two or three minute, then remove from the oil, drain on absorbent paper and serve. (They should look like onion bhajis.)

These have Taste and are a Treat.

YELLOW DOCK IS NOT JUST AN INVASIVE WEED: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF CURLED DOCK

YELLOW OR CURLED DOCK, RUMEX CRISPUS 

Yellow dock gets its name from the colour of its roots, and is also called curled or curly dock because of its crinkly-edged leaves. It is one of the Polygonaceae family of plants along with sorrel, common dock, red dock and rhubarb. Like rhubarb it has a laxative action so is good for mild cases of constipation. The root is used medicinally mainly with the leaves being eaten as a green vegetable either cooked or in salads. However as they contain oxalic acid, it isn’t a good idea to eat many of them. If you cook the leaves they need to be boiled in several changes of water or steeped in water before cooking, preferably overnight and the water changed several times. The stems can be peeled and the inner part eaten and roasted seeds have been used as a coffee substitute although as these are fiddly to harvest if you need a coffee substitute, use dandelion roots or chicory ones. The seeds may be eaten raw or cooked if you are prepared to persevere.

  Yellow dock and it relatives have been used for centuries and Nicholas Culpeper has this to say of Yellow dock’s properties and those of its relatives: -

 “the Yellow Dock root is best to be taken when either the blood or liver is affected by choler. All of them have a kind of cooling (but not all alike) drying quality, the sorrel being most cold, and the blood worts most drying. The seed of most of the other kinds, whether gardens or fields, doth stay laxes and fluxes of all sorts, the loathing of the stomach through choler, and is helpful for those that spit blood.

    The roots boiled in vinegar helpeth the itch, scabs, and breaking out of the skin, if it be bathed therewith. The distilled water of the herb and roots has the same virtue, and cleanseth the skin from freckles, morphewa, and all other spots and discolourings therein.”

   Traditionally the root has also been used to inhibit the growth of cancers although no medical evidence has supported this use.

  The root has been made into a decoction and syrup, with the decoction being used externally for skin problems such as weeping sores and acne. A powder can also be made form the root which can be dusted onto wounds and sores to help clean and heal them. Apparently an infusion of the root has been used for women who have problems with menstruation including period pains. For digestive purposes equal amounts of yellow dock root and sage can be made into a tisane and taken a cupful at a time. It has to be flavoured with honey though as the root has a slightly bitter taste.

  A syrup of yellow dock root is said to be beneficial for respiratory problems and diseases such as asthma and emphysema, while the decoction and infusion are diuretic and useful in the treatment of cystitis and urinary tract infections.

  The leaves contain vitamins A and C as well as some of the B-complex vitamins notably B1, B2, B3 and B6 and the minerals iron, potassium, and phosphorous.

  If you enjoy dying then the roots yield different coloured dyes, from yellow through to brown and dark grey.

  Yellow dock is an invasive plant in North America, southern parts of South America, and parts of New Zealand and Australia. It is native to Europe including the British Isles and to North Africa and Western Asia. Perhaps it would not be seen as such a pest if people knew how beneficial it could be if only they knew how to use it.

SCORZONERA OR BLACK SALSIFY - THE OYSTER PLANT: HISTORY, USE AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF SCORZONERA: SCORZONERA SIDE DISH RECIPE

BLACK SALSIFY, SCORZONERA HISPANICA

Black salsify is considered a superior vegetable to salsify which comes from Purple Goat’s Head, Tragopogon porrifolius, although the two are related coming as they do from the daisy (Asteracea family of plants). They both are sun-turners like sunflowers and both are believed to have origins in southern Europe. However the first written mention of Scorzonera comes in 1575 when it was seen in a market in Aleppo, Syria, which suggests that despite its botanical name (hispanica –Spanish) it actually originated in the Near East. Be that as it may it began to be cultivated in Europe in the 17^th century on a wider scale, although references to it in 1801 suggest that it was considered less viable a crop than salsify (white) as the latter was easier and quicker to manage.

  Black salsify seems to have got its botanical name scorzonera from the Latin meaning black root although there is a suggestion that it comes from escuerza, Spanish for toad. It was the herb used “against the toad” apparently. In folk medicine this plant was used for the bites of venomous creatures, although I am not sure that Spanish toads are venomous. ”Scorzon” is also Old French for snake. Whatever the case, the fresh leaves of the plant were used, bruised and crushed, for viper’s bites and to relieve the pain of these. In some parts of Spain the latex from the root and stems was put in milk as a cure for the common cold. The root itself is considered a general strength-giver and was recommended as a tonic for the stomach. Like the Jerusalem artichoke Black salsify or Scorzonera contains inulin, making it suitable for diabetics.

   Black salsify contains vitamins B2, riboflavin and B6 pyridoxine, along with vitamins C, A and E as well as the minerals potassium, manganese, calcium, phosphorous and iron. Its flowers are reputed to smell like cocoa, while the root is said to taste either like oysters or the heart of a globe artichoke. The whole plant is edible as the petals can be used in salads or as garnish, while the young leaves can be used as spinach and the young tender shoots, leaves and buds can be cooked and eaten as asparagus. The root can be eaten raw, grated in salads or cooked, and this is particularly good in a cheese or béchamel sauce. The young flower buds can also be cooked in egg dishes, in omelettes or scrambled eggs.

  You should wear rubber gloves while preparing the root as your hands will be discoloured after cleaning it. You should peel the bark, thinly from the white root and immediately plunge it in acidulated water, as it discolours when exposed to air. When you peel it put it in a saucepan in water with the juice of a lemon in it. For a simple how to cook recipe try the one in the Purple Goat’s Head post. In Greece this root is frequently used with peas and carrots and casseroled in the oven with them, and it also goes well with lettuces which have been wilted in butter. The recipe below is for Black salsify used as a side dish to accompany meat.

SCORZONERA SIDE DISH

Ingredients

4 large scorzonera roots, peeled and place in water with fresh lemon juice

1 juiced lemon

12 black peppercorns

4 or 5 sprigs fresh thyme or 2 tsps dried thyme

1 bay leaf torn but still intact

1 tsp coriander seeds, crushed

2 tbsps olive oil

1 tbsp butter

salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste

Method

Place the peeled roots in a pan with water and lemon juice, the black peppercorns, 3 sprigs of thyme (1 tsp thyme, dried) bay leaf, coriander seeds and a little salt to taste.

Bring to the boil then simmer until tender (about 30 minutes).

Remove the roots from the liquid cool and cut them into small pieces, of equal size.

Heat the olive oil in a frying pan and sauté the salsify , seasoning it with the rest of the thyme and freshly ground black pepper.

Cook, stirring until it is golden-brown.

Add the butter and toss until the butter foams.

Remove from the heat. Drain on absorbent paper and serve hot.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

SALSIFY - ROOT VEGETABLE FROM PURPLE GOAT'S BEARD: HEALTH BENEFITS AND HOW TO COOK SALSIFY

SALSIFY, PURPLE GOAT’S BEARD, TRAGOPOGON PORRIFOLIUS

Salsify is the edible root of the Purple Goat’s Beard plant which is native to Europe. It is a close relative of the yellow goat’s beard, which also has an edible root. Both plants are related to the dandelion and salsify was a popular vegetable in the 16^th century, although its use fell into decline in the 20^th century. However it has had a resurgence in popularity as people have rediscovered its oyster-like flavour. In some places it is known as the Oyster plant or the Vegetable oyster plant. It is a member of the Asteraceae or daisy family of plants, and the purple flower looks a little like the globe artichoke. In fact, it can be substituted for artichoke hearts, or asparagus. It has a nutty flavour and the root contains inulin just like the Jerusalem artichoke, making it good for diabetics.

  The roots grow in clumps and are beige-white. They are best left in the soil until you are ready to use them, but if you buy them you should use them that day, although you can keep them in a cool dark place and cover them with sand, as you might a chicory root.

  The whole plant is edible and the petals are good in salads. The root can be grated and added to salads too and can be chewed like chewing gum. You can sprout the seeds to and add them to salads or sandwiches- they are good with eggs. The flowering shoots and the young shoots before the flowers appear can be cooked and eaten like asparagus. It is said that the roots have diuretic properties, so perhaps you shouldn’t eat too many of them.

  The word salsify has an interesting history and probably comes from the Latin, solsequium or sun-following as, like the sunflower, the purple flowers turn to follow the sun. In Old Italian, salsifica was the name of this vegetable, and this means salt (sal) and rub (fricare) and clearly this is close to salsify. This salsify is said to be inferior to black or Spanish salsify, although it is very palatable.

  It has been used in medicine to remove obstructions of the gall bladder and for jaundice, and is believed to be good for sufferers of arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure.

  The 17^th century herbalist, Nicholas Culpeper had this to say about Purple Goat’s Beard:-

 “The virtues of this are the same as the other, only less pleasant, therefore more bitter, astringent, detersive and medicinal. This, however, may be eaten in great quantities, and so will be useful in chronic complaints. The roots are particularly specific in obstructions of the gall and the jaundice; the best way to use them is stewed like chardoons (cardoons).”

   To cook them you first need to clean the roots under cold running water and peel them, putting the pieces of salsify in cold water with a squeeze of fresh lemon juice in it. You should cut them into short pieces and put them in boiling water and simmer them for about 30 minutes or until they are tender. Then drain the pieces of salsify and sauté them in a little butter. You can also then put them in a béchamel sauce and top with cheese to brown in a moderate oven. In Greece they are sometimes served in avgolemno sauce (egg and lemon sauce) and are also served cold with carrots and peas in a vinaigrette dressing. It is low in calories but contains lots of dietary fibre, vitamins B2 riboflavin, and B6, folate and the minerals potassium, magnesium, iron and calcium.

  Why not try this root vegetable and let us know what you think?

 

YELLOW GOAT'S BEARD - EDIBLE ROOT WITH MEDICINAL PROPERTIES

YELLOW GOAT’S BEARD, TRAGOPOGON PRATENSIS

At first sight Yellow Goat’s Beard looks rather like a dandelion and it has a clock of seeds like dandelions do too, which gives rise to another country name for the plant, Shepherd’s Clock. It is also called Meadow salsify as it is closely related to the Purple Goat’s Beard which gives us the salsify root. It is a member of the daisy family of Asteraceae or Compositae plants and is indigenous to Europe, including Britain, as well as Iran and Siberia and is naturalized in the US. It can grow to heights of between one and two feet, and has golden yellow flowers which bloom in June and July. It is notable in that the flowers open at dawn and close around noon, unless it is cloudy. This has given rise to the names “(Jack) go-to-bed-at-noon” as described by the 16th century

English herbalist, John Gerard, and “Noon flower.”

  Abraham Cowley, the 17^th century English metaphysical poet (1618-1667) wrote these lines about the plant in his poem which mentions many of Britain’s wild flowers “Helleborus Niger, or, Christmas Flower”:-

   “The goat’s beard, which each morn abroad doth peep

     But shuts its flowers at noon and goes to sleep.”

   The juice of the plant has been used for stomach upsets, and is said to be beneficial to the liver and gallbladder. The roots can be eaten like parsnips although the roots of the salsify plant are better. The young leaves and shoots can be used as pot-herbs to flavour soups and stews, and the young stalks including the flower buds before they open may be cooked like asparagus, and are said to have a similar taste. The roots can be dug up in autumn and kept in sand, as you would keep chicory roots. The high inulin content of the roots means that these roots are good for diabetics, and they are used as detoxifiers in traditional medicine. However the younger the root, the better it tastes.

  The yellow petals can be steeped in boiling water and left for 20 minutes or so and then the liquid should be strained and left to cool. The water can be used to lighten freckles and as a cleanser.

   The Physicians of Myddfai found uses for this plant, and this one was for pneumonia

“Let (the patient) take, for three successive days, of the following herbs; hemlock, agrimony, herb Robert, and asarabacca, then let him undergo a three day's course of aperients. When the disease is thus removed from the bronchial tubes, an emetic should be given him (daily) to the end of nine days. Afterwards let a medicine be prepared, by digesting the following herbs in wheat ale or red wine: madder, sharp dock, anise, agrimony, daisy, round birthwort, meadow sweet, yellow goat's beard, heath, water avens, woodruff, crake berry, the corn cockle, caraway, and such other herbs as will seem good to the physician. Thus is the blessed confection prepared.”

 Clearly this would kill or cure given that they prescribed hemlock!

 This was a prescription of theirs for fevers: first of all they suggested taking

   “The mugwort, madder, meadow sweet, milfoil, hemp, red cabbage, and the tutsan, all these seven herbs enter into the composition of the medicine required.

Any of the following herbs may be added thereto, butcher's broom, agrimony, tutsan, dwarf elder, amphibious persicaria, centaury, round birth wort, field scabious, pepper mint, daisy, knap weed, roots of the red nettle, crake berry, St. John's wort, privet, wood betony, the roots of the yellow goat's beard, heath, water avens, woodruff, leaves of the earth nut, agrimony, wormwood, the bastard balm, small burdock, and the orpine.”

  Culpeper used this plant in medicine too and wrote of it:-

 “A large double handful of the entire plant, roots, flowers and all bruised and boiled and then strained with a little sweet oil, is an excellent clyster in most desperate cases of strangury or suppression of urine. A decoction of the roots is very good for the heartburn, loss of appetite, disorders of the breast and liver, expels sand and gravel, and even small stone. The roots dressed like parsnips with butter are good for cold, watery stomachs, boiled or cold, or eaten as a raw salad; they are grateful to the stomach strengthen the lean and consumptive, or the weak after long sickness. The distilled water gives relief to pleurisy, stitches or pains in the side.”

  However the plant has fallen out of use both for its edible and medicinal qualities.

RED DOCK, CULPEPER'S BLOODWORT; HISTORY OF USES OF RED DOCK

RED DOCK, BLOODWORT, RUMEX AQUATICA

Red dock is native to Europe although not to Italy and the Balkans, and to Northern Asia. As its botanical name suggests it likes living on the edges of swampy ground and can be found in damp ditches and along margins of fields. It can grow up to 6 feet tall when it is in flower during July and August. As the English name says, it has red flowers and these give way in September to red-cased seeds. It is related to Rumex acetosella or sorrel and more distantly to rhubarb as they are all members of the Polygonaceae family of plants. It is also closely related to yellow or crispy dock and to the common dock (Rumex obtusifolia) which is the antidote to nettle stings.

  The leaves may be cooked and eaten as this will remove most of the oxalic acid present in them; they can be used like spinach, if necessary. However it is not advisable to ingest this plant if you suffer from rheumatism, gout or arthritis. An infusion of the whole plant can be used externally however on sores and ulcers to cleanse them. If taken internally this infusion is said to detoxify the body. The roots can be boiled and used as a poultice on rheumatic joints to alleviate the pain, and the powdered root has been used as toothpaste.  The root has also been used in the treatment of mouth ulcers, as has the dock leaf R. obtusifolia.

  The root can be harvested in spring when it is said to be at its most potent in medical terms, and dried for later use. The tannin in the plant makes it a useful astringent and can be used for diarrhoea and stomach upset, while the anthraquinones in the plant make it a good laxative, which is milder than senna and, of course jamalgota. If you take an overdose of the plant you will suffer nausea, stomach pains and gastric problems and perhaps dermatitis if used externally.

  Culpeper recommended the red dock or bloodwort: -

“All Docks are under Jupiter, of which the Red Dock, which is commonly called Bloodwort; cleanseth the blood and strengthens the liver.”

 He emphasizes this by ending his description of the docks by saying: -

   “Bloodwort is exceeding strengthening to the liver, and procures good blood, being as wholesome a pot herb as any growing in a garden.”

   However all docks have gone out of culinary use; the information here is for curiosity's sake only.

RAMSON, WILD OR BEAR'S GARLIC, EUROPEAN NATIVE: HISTORY,USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF WILD GARLIC

WILD GARLIC, BEAR’S GARLIC, RAMSON,ALLIUM URSINUM

I grew up in a place where wild garlic proliferated, and hated the smell when the plant was in flower. I was amazed that such pretty flowers could smell so awful. I’m not sure that the acrid smell is like that of garlic, but it is strong and hangs heavily in the air around the growing plants.

  Apparently it is called bear’s garlic in Latin because the European brown bears were partial to the bulbs and would gorge on them when they awoke from their hibernation period. It is a native to Western and Central Europe and parts of Asia. In Germany there has been a movement to use edible wild plants in haute cuisine and chefs have been putting bear’s garlic in their dishes, which seems a bit of a waste, as, like fresh coriander leaves, the broad chopped leaves are best added to piping hot food and stirred into it just before serving. Cooking it like spinach or leeks rather diminishes the flavour. You can add the leaves to soups as you would sorrel, but again you lose most of the flavour, but do have a smelly kitchen.

  All parts of the plant are edible and our ancestors seemed to have utilized it as remains of pollen have been found in Neolithic settlements in Sweden and in Mesolithic ones in Denmark. It is a member of the onion family and closely related to chives.

  The plant leaves are high in vitamin C and also contain vitamins A and the minerals, manganese, copper, iron, magnesium and traces of selenium. The leaves also contain adenosine which is believed to play a key role in regulating high blood pressure and tachycardia.

   Throughout history the plant has been used as a spring tonic to cleanse the blood and boost the immune system, as it is believed to work to boost the functioning of the internal organs. It was named “1992 Medicinal Plant of the Year” by the Association for the Protection and Research on European Medicinal Plants, and there have been some clinical trials carried out on this plant along with true garlic Allium sativa. Bear’s garlic comes out top in terms of sulphur content although most of the relevant literature says that it has a weaker medicinal action than Allium sativa.

  If you go foraging for this plant simply follow your nose. There have been reports of people suffering the effects of poisoning from confusing the leaves of Bear’s garlic with those of lily-of-the-valley, or cuckoo pint and even dying after eating too many leaves of the autumn crocus, or meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale). The smell of garlic will come from this plant and doesn’t from the others, which don’t really bear it too much resemblance, so if you follow your nose on this you shouldn’t encounter a problem.

  If you use the bulb it is best harvested between the months of July and December or early January, although if you start to dig up bulbs you are depleting the wild stock of plants. It’s best to just stick to eating the leaves. The plant has antifungal and antiviral actions and has been used in the past as household disinfectant - the juice from the plant is good for this, although you still have to deal with the odour. The plant itself is useful in gardens as it repels insects and burrowing moles.

  The juice is said to be good for weight loss, and its mild action can be a counter irritant if applied to places where you have rheumatic pains. It increases the blood circulation locally and does ease pain in arthritic joints.

  The plant has been used for asthma and emphysema sufferers as well as in cases of bronchitis, and is said to be effective.

  The name ramson which is the plant’s English name gives rise to some confusion as there is a plant called rampion, which is a member of the Campanulaceae family, and not a relation to this one, and in the US in the Appalachians there is a plant locally called ramps which is a relative of this, but they are not the same plant. The US plant is a wild onion and its botanical name is Allium tricoccum.

RAMPION BELLFLOWER - ORNAMENTAL, HERB AND VEGETABLE WITH HEALTH BENEFITS

RAMPION, CAMPANULA RAPUNCULUS

Rampion is a flower, a herb and vegetable all rolled into one plant. Its roots look a little like an undernourished mooli or a pale parsnip, and is a root vegetable which can be boiled as you would boil a carrot. However, it is a member of the Campanulaceae family of plants which includes the Harebell (Campanula rotundiflora) to which rampion is a close relative. The stems of both plants contain a milky sap, which was once used as a facial treatment to whiten the skin and free it from blemishes. The distilled water from the plant was also once used for such purposes.

  The rampion was widely used in Britain in Shakespeare’s time as most of the plant is edible. The young shoots were blanched and used as a substitute for asparagus, while the leaves, which are rich in vitamin C, can be used in winter salads. They can also be substituted for spinach. It is a native of Europe, Asia and North Africa.

  These days, the plant is mostly seen as a garden ornamental, as the flowers which are generally lilac, are very attractive and like the harebell. However, the root is quite palatable and a little sweet like a parsnip and the leaves are edible too, so try some if you have it in your borders.

  The Brother’s Grimm featured the rampion in their tale of “Rapunzel” and that name seems to have its origins in the Latin name for the plant, rapunculus, which means little rapa or turnip. One version of Rapunzel tells us that a man and his wife had waited to have a baby for years, so when the woman eventually became pregnant, her husband would do anything for her. They lived near an enchantress who grew rampion in her garden, and the woman began to crave this plant. Her husband dutifully climbed over the wall and got her some one evening, and on subsequent ones, but the enchantress caught him as he was scaling back over the wall. She threatened him with enchantment or death for stealing her rampions and he promised, in return for his life being spared, that he would give her the baby his wife was carrying when it was born. The baby was Rapunzel who was duly handed over to the enchantress. You probably remember the rest of the story so I won’t bore you with it.

  There is an old superstition from Italy which says that children will quarrel if they are close to rampion or if they pull it up. In Calabria in southern Italy, there is an old legend that says that a young girl once uprooted rampion and found a staircase which led to an underground palace. No good came of it!

  According to the 16^th century herbalist, John Gerard, a decoction of the plant was used to ease sore throats and to soothe inflammations in the mouth. However there is no scientific evidence to support any medicinal uses of rampion.

  

WYCH ELM - MYTHS, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF WYCH ELM

WYCH ELM, ULMUS GLABRA

The wych elm is the only elm tree which is native to Britain and is also native to Scotland, which can only boast around twenty indigenous trees. It is known as the Scotch elm too because of this and has given rise to the names of Loch Leven and Loch Lomond. Loch Lomond is a corruption of the name Leamhán which is Scots Gaelic for elm, as is Leven. In Irish Gaelic the elm is slόibhe. Not to be outdone the Welsh epic poem, The Battle of the Trees, Cad Geddau, supposedly written in the 6^th century by the bard Taliesin, features the elm as being steadfast and unyielding in battle. The wood from the wych elm was used by mediaeval Welsh archers to great effect. The English bowmen favoured the wood of the yew tree. However the wood of the elm is flexible which is reflected in the Old English word, wice, meaning pliant or supple which became wiche in Middle English and hence wych.

  The wych elm has the largest leaves of all British trees and seems to be more resilient to the ravages of Dutch elm disease, caused by the Ceratocystis ulmi fungus, than other elms. In Britain more than 20 million elm trees have been lost to this disease since the 1970s.

  The wych elm is associated with death and has been since at least the time of the ancient Greeks. There is a myth which tells how the first elm grove sprang up when Orpheus paused to play a love song on his lyre for his wife Eurydice whom he had just rescued from Hades (the Greek name for the Underworld). Other Greek myths say that Orpheus and his Argonauts met the Hesperides in their garden and the nymphs transformed themselves into trees; Erytheia became a wych elm which in Greek is ptelea. This story can be found in the work of Apollonius Rhodius. Homer relates that nymphs planted trees on the burial mound of the King of Trojan Thebes, King Eetion, after he was slain by Achilles. Virgil says that Oneiroi, the spirit of dreams, slept at night in a wych elm which guarded the entrance to Hades.

  Greeks planted the wych elm in burial grounds and regarded it as sacred to Dionysus as it was used to support grape vines; Dionysus was the god of wine and debauchery whose Roman equivalent was Bacchus.

  There are other reasons why the wych elm has been associated with death, one being that its branches fall unexpectedly and can kill anyone underneath them at the time. There have been several deaths recorded because of branches falling on them. The wood was also favoured for coffin-making because of its resistance to water.

  In the 17^th and 18^th centuries in Britain wych elm wood was used to make underground water pipes in cities such as Bristol and London and these have stood the test of time remarkably well. The wood has been made for groynes (wooden breakwaters in the sea) and for piers and harbour works. Waterwheels have also been made from this wood as have the ‘platforms’ from which church bells are swing in bell towers. The wood is used for furniture and to make smaller decorative items and it is truly a beautiful close-grained wood. It has also been employed in boat-building to make keels and rudders as well as boards.

  Wych elms can tolerate the most polluted cities as you will see if you visit Thessaloniki on the Greek mainland and stroll down Tsimiski Avenue. The poor trees have been pollarded and endure exhaust fumes on a daily basis but are still growing despite the odds.

  The trees can grow to around 70 feet tall and have broad canopies. They can also live for many years and there are some examples still left in Europe of really ancient wych elms. Yellow dye can be obtained from the tree and the inner bark fibres can be used for tie dying fabrics and for securing thatch as well as for caning traditionally made wooden chairs.

  Pollen from wych elms found in archaeological sites in Scotland has been dated to 8,500 years ago, showing that they have been growing there for at least that long. There is also evidence from sites in Britain that the tree was used to make bows as far back as the Mesolithic Age. According to tradition, magicians favoured wands made from wych elm wood.

  The young leaves of the wych elm are edible and can be eaten raw or cooked, but have a mucilaginous texture. The fruit (seed) is also edible; the inner bark has sometimes been dried then ground to a powder and used to thicken soups and stews and added to flour to make bread.

  The inner bark of the wych elm has also been used in traditional medicine as a remedy for rheumatism, when used internally as a tisane or externally on the affected area. It has astringent properties and is said to be a useful remedy for diarrhoea. The tisane made from this also has a mildly diuretic action.

  Sometimes galls grow on the wych elm leaves as they do on the oak leaves, and the water found in them has been used in traditional medicine as according to the 17^th century English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper, “the water that is found in the bladders (galls) on the leaves is very effectual to cleanse the skin and make it fair.” In autumn the insects inside these galls die and the yellow or black balsam that is left has been used for chest ailments.

  In the UK there are some projects designed to help ensure the continued existence of these trees and hopefully soon there will be a cure for Dutch elm disease. These trees need all the help they can get.