CORN COCKLE - ONCE A WEED, NOW RARE: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF CORN COCKLE

CORN COCKLE, AGROSTEMMA GITHAGO 

The corn cockle is a native of Europe and is believed to have arrived in Britain on the backs (possibly quite literally) of Iron Age farmers, as it grew among crops of grain such as rye, which seems to have been its favourite neighbour in Britain, wheat and barley. Like the red poppy and blue cornflower, it flourished in cultivated land. Now it is a very rare sight in the wild in Britain, but can be bought for gardens.

  It is a member of the pink family of plants so is related to carnations, cloves, soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) and the soapnut or reetha.  The seeds and roots of the plant contain saponins which are toxic and so should not be eaten. However leaching (soaking in several changes of water for a day or so) generally rids plants of their toxins. It is said that the leaves of the corn cockle may be eaten as a vegetable in times of famine.

  The plant was extremely common in agriculture land in Shakespeare’s time and earlier, and seeds have been found in cess pits at York and other archaeological sites in Britain. It has been suggested by some that the seeds were an adulterant of bread, which like ergot, a fungus, could have lead to debility and made the population in the Middle Ages susceptible to leprosy a common disease at that time. This was discussed in 1961 by Professor Harry Godwin and K. Bachem. John Gerard writing in the 16^th century said that the corn cockle was often to be found in bread which it spoiled.

  Culpeper has this to say of the plant in his Herbal of the 17^th century: -

  “This unprofitable guest amongst corn is of Saturnine quality, causeth giddiness of the head, and stupefies if it gets amongst the corn to be made with it into bread, and, howsoever taken, it is dangerous and hurtful; although some ignorant persons have mistaken it for the right nigella, or used it instead of yuray or darnel to the great danger of the patient.” (“right nigella” is nigella sativa from which we get kalvanji or black seeds)

  However the Welsh Physicians of Myddfai have it in one of their remedies for pneumonia, taken along with other herbs: -

“Let (the patient) take, for three successive days, of the following herbs; hemlock, agrimony, herb Robert, and asarabacca, then let him undergo a three day's course of aperients. When the disease is thus removed from the bronchial tubes, an emetic should be given him (daily) to the end of nine days. Afterwards let a medicine be prepared, by digesting the following herbs in wheat ale or red wine: madder, sharp dock, anise, agrimony, daisy, round birthwort, meadow sweet, yellow goat's beard, heath, water avens, woodruff, crake berry, the corn cockle, caraway, and such other herbs as will seem good to the physician.”

  It gets a mention in Shakespeare’s “Coriolanus” in Act III scene I when Coriolanus and other senators are discussing a recent gift of corn to the poor, and liken them and their ingratitude for the gift to the “cockle”

“Coriolanus: …In soothing them we nourish ’gainst our senate

                     The cockle of rebellion, insolence, sedition,

                     Which we ourselves have plough’d for, sow’d and scatter’d,

                     By mingling them with us, the honour’d number.”

 In the Middle Ages the seeds from the corn cockle were prescribed by the apothecaries of the time as a laxative and were more harmful than jamalgota. In folk medicine systems in Europe the seeds were prescribed for treating cancer and tumours, as well as for hard swellings of the uterus (apostemes). The saponins were responsible for the local anaesthetic uses of the plant, but the seeds cause acute poisoning if taken in large doses resulting in vomiting, vertigo, difficulties in breathing, diarrhoea and excessive salivation, amongst other symptoms. The seeds contain githagenin which can get rid of intestinal worms, but the plant is best left alone and admired as a garden ornamental. If you do plant these in the garden, they need support as they can grow quite tall and bend under their own weight, producing a solitary flower which is pink-purple at the top of the spindly stem.

BRAZILIAN GRAPE TREE - LITTLE-KNOWN OUTSIDE ITS GROWING AREA: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF THE JABUTICABA TREE

BRAZILIAN GRAPE TREE, JABUTICABA, MYRCIARIA CAULIFLORA 

As you might have already guessed the Jabuticaba tree is a native of Brazil, where it has been cultivated since Pre-Columbian times and this particular species is native to a south-eastern corner of that country. There are several types of grape tree, which bear different fruit, however they all have one thing in common- the white flowers which are the precursors of the fruit grow straight from the trunk and branches of the tree, and so do the fruits. When in full bloom the trees look as though they are covered with snow. The tree is a member of the Myrtaceae (myrtle) family which means that it is a distant cousin of the eucalyptus tree, allspice and guavas.

  Jabuti means tortoise and caba means place in the local Tupi language, so the trees grow in the place of tortoises. The tree is a slow growing evergreen which can reach heights of forty-five feet in its natural habitat, although they don’t grow that tall in southern Florida, where they have been introduced. They were introduced into California in 1904, but by 1939 none had survived. Now some are grown in Florida, but they remain trees which flourish best in tropical climates. Some different varieties of grape tree grow in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. Because they are one of nature’s curiosities they are grown enthusiastically by people who adore bonsai (miniature) trees.

  In their natural habitat, and if they are irrigated well and looked after they can produce up to five crops of fruit every year, but usually only manage two. The fruit are eagerly awaited in the areas where they grow, but they are not sold very far afield because they perish quickly and cannot be exported. They are eaten raw, although one shouldn’t eat the skins as they are very astringent as they have a high tannin content, which could be harmful if eaten in large quantities for a prolonged period of time. They are eaten raw or used to make jams and marmalades, although they have to have added pectin to set. Wine can also be made from the fruit which can be sweet or slightly acid and astringent, depending on the variety. The fruit can be bright green when ripe, or purple-black, red-purple and burgundy-purple tasting spicy and slightly acid. It can range from between two and six centimetres in diameter, and has white, gelatinous flesh which clings to the seeds it contains (from 1 to 4). It has been likened to a muscadine grape (hence the name grape tree) with larger seeds.

  In Brazil the skins of the fruit are sun-dried and made into an astringent decoction and used in traditional medicine for asthma, diarrhoea, and it is also used as a gargle for chronic tonsillitis and sore throats. The fruit contains vitamins B1, (thiamin), B2, (riboflavin) and B3 (niacin), vitamin C in the form of ascorbic acid, along with the minerals calcium, iron and phosphorous. It also contains the amino acids, lysine and trptophan. The colour of the skin (purple-black) shows that it contains anthocyanins as do aubergines and blueberries, bilberries, blackberries and blackcurrants, which have potent antioxidant properties. Extracts from the fruit have demonstrated some anti-cancer properties in several studies, but more research is needed into its compounds. A unique (so far) one has been found, jaboticabin, a depside, and it is believed that the fruit has anti-inflammatory as well as antioxidant properties.

  If you have never seen pictures like these before, the tree is real and although it looks like one of nature’s jokes like the Nipple fruit, it may have some very beneficial properties.

COMMON EVENING PRIMROSE - NOT ONLY FOR FEMALE PROBLEMS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF THE EVENING PRIMROSE

COMMON EVENING PRIMROSE, OENOTHERA BIENNIS 

There are around 125 species of Oenothera, or the evening primrose, but the common one which we get evening primrose oil from is this yellow one which originated millennia ago in Central America and spread throughout the North American continent. It was taken to Britain and Germany by early colonists (it went the opposite way to the usual route for medicinal plants) who learned of its uses from the Native Americans. It is a member of the Onagraceae or willowherb family which includes the rose bay willowherb and fuchsias. It is not related to the primrose from which it takes its name because of the colour and shape of its flowers.

  The name of the genus, Oenothera comes from the Greek with oeno meaning a honeyed wine (like nectar) and thera meaning hunter or seeker, so the evening primrose is the plant for nectar seekers.

  The flowers on the top of the stem bloom first, and so have seed pods first, but the whole plant continues to flower in layers and continues growing until autumn. It flowers in the evening (as its name suggests) and is pollinated by butterflies and moths as well as other insects which fly during the evening.

  The whole plant is edible, and the flowers can be used in salads or as garnishes and a yellow dye can also be produced from them. The young shoots can be used in salads and these have a peppery flavour and should be used sparingly. It is the seeds from which the oil is extracted and these can be eaten in the young seed pods or roasted when extracted from the pods. Just roast them in the oven at 350° F for 15 – 20 minutes and put them on bread or in savoury dishes. Use them as you would flax seeds.

  The seeds contain Gamma-Linoleic acid (GLA) which is rarely found in plants, and this is an essential fatty acid which the body cannot manufacture. It is believed to have positive effect on the sex hormones, testosterone and oestrogen and to lower blood cholesterol levels and reduce blood pressure. It helps to prevent hardening of the arteries and so helps to keep the cardio-vascular system healthy. In some cases it has shown to be beneficial in the treatment of cirrhosis of the liver.

  Research is ongoing into the effects of GLA and the other constituents of evening primrose oil and the plant, as it has become a very popular remedy for the treatment of PMS/PMT and other menstrual and menopausal symptoms although there is scant scientific evidence to support its use. GLA is found in borage, bhang (hemp) and blackcurrant oils too.

  The oil is also used externally for eczema, and internally for rheumatoid arthritis. It does seem to be effective as an anti-inflammatory pain –reliever and in curing skin problems although trials have not been as detailed as they could have been, as some patients dropped out of the program.

  Two studies have been done into the effectiveness of the oil on the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy, namely numbness in the legs and feet and tingling, burning, pain and lack of sensation. These were reported as being successful in that patients reported some easing of the symptoms, but it is too early to say categorically that GLA can help with these symptoms.

  The bark and leaves of the plant have astringent and sedative properties and have been used in traditional medicine systems to relieve whooping cough, gastro-intestinal problems and asthma. There is little medical evidence to support these uses however.

  Native Americans used the whole plant in poultices to help heal bruising much in the same way as herbalists such as Culpeper used mallow and pellitory. They also used it as a wound healer or vulnerary.

  The roots of this plant are also edible and said to resemble those of salsify both in appearance and taste. They taste a little like parsnips too according to some people.

  We have to wait and see if science can catch up with folk medicine and confirm or deny the benefits which many say they have experienced after using evening primrose oil.

 

PELLITORY - A CULINARY HERB: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PELLITORY

PELLITORY, MOUNT ATLAS DAISY, SPANISH CHAMOMILE, ANACYCLUS PYRETHRUM

Pellitory has been used in medicine since ancient times and originates in Algeria, although it is now grown in the Himalayas (cultivated) and various other parts of the world. It can be used as a herb in stews and so on as it has a peppery taste, perhaps because of the piperine–like substance in it. It is a member of the Asteraceae/Compositae or daisy family so is a relative of marigolds, chamomile, which it resembles closely and a whole host of other flowering plants.

  Dioscorides and Pliny agreed that it was useful against intermittent fevers, while later European herbalists such as Hildegard von Bingen in her “Physica” states that it was used to get rid of waste products in the blood and to build good blood, as well as “for pure intelligence” – I am translating this straight from the Latin and this is all it says. She also writes that it is good when used in cooking for those recovering from a debilitating illness as well as for healthy individuals as it keeps ill-health away. She also says that it clears the head of mucous and clears the eyes, and aids digestion. She describes it as being a temperate herb with a dry warmth and a powerful action.(Perhaps its the European equivalent of the Intellect Tree.)

  Culpeper writing later in the 17^th century agrees in the main: -

“Government and virtues. It is under the government of Mercury, and I am persuaded it is one of the best purgers of the brain that grows. An ounce of the juice taken in a draught of Muskadel an hour before the fit of the ague comes, it will assuredly drive away the ague at the second or third time taken at the farthest. Either the herb or root dried and chewed in the mouth, purges the brain of phlegmatic humours; thereby not only easing pains in the head and teeth, but also hinders the distilling of the brain upon the lungs and eyes, thereby preventing coughs, phthisicks and consumption, the apoplexy and falling sickness. It is an excellently approved remedy in the lethargy. The powder of the herb or root being snuffed up the nostrils, procures sneezing, and eases the head-ache; being made into an ointment with hog's grease, it takes away black and blue spots occasioned by blows or falls, and helps both the gout and sciatica.”

  He also says that it resembles yarrow.

  It has also been used as an insecticide and a tonic for the nervous system. In India it is used for malaria and cholera and is given as a tonic to aid digestion. It is applied externally as a poultice or compress for a headache, and also is a traditional aphrodisiac. Some herbalists recommend it for diabetes and for erectile dysfunctions combined with other herbs such as puncture vine.

  It has been grown in Britain for centuries although Culpeper says that it needs tender loving care to flourish in the climate, and it may even have arrived in the British Isles prior to the Roman conquest of 55 BC. It has been used in a cordial in Arab countries and was familiar to the Arab physicians of the Middle Ages.

  It has been used as a gargle with cold water and honey to relieve sore throats and relieves the dryness of the mouth and promotes the flow of saliva if chewed. A tincture made from the plant has been used for toothache, either rubbed on the gums or put into a decaying tooth with a cotton wool swab.

  The root has been applied as a counter-irritant to joints and limbs afflicted by rheumatism and arthritis and it seems to affect the nerve endings as it causes redness and a tingling sensation. It was once believed that if you chewed the root regularly over a period of several months it would help sufferers of rheumatic and neuralgic pains in the head and face.

  The main active ingredient in the volatile oil from pellitory seems to be pyrethrine or pellitorin an alkaloid, along with lignans such as sesamine (also found in sesame seeds), inulin (a starchy substance), and tannins. Lignans such as those found in flax seeds have anti-inflammatory properties.

  Research is still being carried out on pellitory so we will have to wait and see what health benefits scientists say this plant has. Probably many of the old uses of the herb will prove to have scientific backing.

OYSTER MUSHROOMS - GOURMET TREATS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND RECIPE WITH OYSTER MUSHROOMS

OYSTER MUSHROOMS, PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS

I have always been a fan of oyster mushrooms, but you can’t imagine my delight when my husband came back with a couple of packets of these instead of the usual button mushrooms, or khombi as they are known here in Pakistan. I like them almost as much as chanterelles. (They are also much cheaper here than elsewhere in the world.)

  Oyster mushrooms grow on trees or wood in layers, and because they take their nutrients form their host the caps may come in different colours, dark brown, white, pink, yellow or grey. (Mine were white.) These have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 3,000 years, and of course have been eaten for much longer than that. These mushrooms may be eaten raw or cooked and have a meaty texture. You can simply cook them in butter or in an omelette, or throw them into casseroles, soups and stews without frying them first which is how I cook them. Use them in recipes which call for mushrooms without specifying the variety.

  If you have ever had a Guinness, beef and oyster pie, then you will know the texture of the oyster, and I think this is the reason these mushrooms have been given that name. They don’t really taste of oysters, and don’t really look like them, but the texture is much the same.

  All mushrooms contain ergothionine which has potent antioxidant properties, which help keep our body cells healthy and free from the ravages of free-radicals which can damage healthy cells and cause them to become cancerous. These properties also help our cardio-vascular system. Oyster mushrooms also contain lovastin which is found in cholesterol-lowering drugs. They also have antiviral and antibacterial properties, so are very good for our health as they can help stimulate the immune system.

   Oyster mushrooms contain an active compound, benzaldehyde, which has antibacterial properties, and it also has some antiviral activities too. They are a good source of B-complex vitamins, particularly riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3) as well as thiamin (B1) and pantothenic acid. As for minerals, they are good for your daily intake of iron, phosphorous, and calcium and they also contain most of the other minerals the body needs, such as zinc and selenium. They also contain some vitamin C and amino acids. They contain a little unsaturated or good fat and give you more protein per serving than meat without the fat and cholesterol, and as they don’t have to be fried, you are in a winning situation if you add them to a calorie controlled diet.

  The terpenoids in mushrooms have demonstrable anti-inflammatory properties and research in ongoing into the other health benefits that mushrooms may have. It seems that there are some polysaccharides in them which have exhibited antitumour properties, so eating mushrooms, and particularly these oyster mushrooms, can have great health benefits if you eat them regularly.

Tasty Beef and Oyster Mushroom Sauce for Pasta

Ingredients

250 gr minced (ground) beef

200 gr oyster mushrooms sliced into medium-sized pieces,

2 onions, finely sliced

3 cloves garlic, finely chopped

4 medium-sized tomatoes, chopped roughly

1 tbsp cumin seeds

1 dstsp chilli powder

1 tsp turmeric (haldi)

1 tsp coriander seeds

1 handful shredded fresh coriander leaves

olive oil

salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste

1 tbsp Worcestershire sauce (optional)

broccoli florets or spinach (otional)

Method

Heat the oil in a pan and add the cumin seeds, chilli powder,turmeric and coriander seeds, and fry for a minute.

Add the onion and garlic and fry until the onion is translucent.

Add the beef and cook until it is no longer pink.

Put the tomatoes in the pan and add about 2 glasses of water.

Bring to the boil and add the salt and pepper. Now add the mushrooms and Worcestershire sauce along with the green vegetables if you are using them.

Cook for twenty minutes and leave to settle with the lid on while you cook the pasta,

Stir in the coriander leaves, reheat and serve with pasta.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE - SUPERSTITIONS, FOLKLORE AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF MANDRAKE

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE, MANDRAGORA OFFICINARUM 

European mandrake has a long history of uses, as well as superstitions. It was not until the spread of Humanism and the Renaissance that the thinking man began to reject the lore surrounding the mandrake root and stripped bare the uses it might have.

  This mandrake is famous for its root which can be forked, and in the dim and distant past it was thought to be a root which had human forms, and to this end it was shaped into amulets by skillful carvers, to ward off evil spirits and spirit possession as well as to safeguard the owner or wearer from all ills that could possibly befall him or her. Skillful carvers often substituted bryony roots for those of the mandrake and passed them off as such, commanding high prices for the counterfeit goods.

  In the ancient world however mandrake was used for its medicinal properties, with patients in Rome (so we are told by Pliny) chewing on mandrake root prior to undergoing surgery. The root has pain-killing properties and has been used for toothaches and as a sleep inducer for those who were in prolonged pain. Small doses were given to cure depression (melancholy) and mental disturbances, although overdoses actually drove people mad.

  Hildegard von Bingen the abbess who studied herbs and medicine noted that mandrake was responsible for “illusions” while Plato recommended its use as an anesthetic and Aristotle thought it was good to induce sleep. There are cuneiform writings from Assyria, Babylon and Mesopotamia which show it was used in medicine, for a whole variety of ailments including abscesses, ulcers, labour pains, and many more.

  The ancient Egyptians used it as evidenced by its inclusion in the Ebers Papyrus dating back to around 1,700 BC, which is a list of plants and their medical uses. There are pictures of it in King Tutankhamen’s tomb, and it is clear from this evidence that it was held in high regard in ancient Egypt. It is believed to have arrived there from Palestine as mandrake or mandragora as it was known, is native to the Mediterranean, and stretches throughout the Aegean and North Africa as well as being present in the Iberian peninsula.

  Mandrake is a member of the Solanaceae family and so is a relative of Belladonna or deadly nightshade, which also makes it a relative of the tomato and potato both of which were treated with suspicion when first introduced into Europe. Mandrake although a native, had the same reputation in the Middle Ages and earlier, as the Anglo-Saxons certainly believed that it was a magical root. It was said to grow under gallows trees where murderers had been hanged, and if one dug up the root death would surely follow.

Josephus (c. 37 AD – c. 100, Jerusalem) gives the following directions for pulling it up:

“A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this the root can be handled without fear.”

  The root, because it seemed to have human form, although in fact it looks more like a gnarled carrot or parsnip, was said to scream hideously and groan when removed from the soil and anyone who heard the scream would die. If you saw the Harry Potter movies or read the books you will remember that Harry’s classmates were given ear protectors when they had to repot the mandrakes, but of course poor Neville Longbottom passed out. Clearly Ms Rowling had been influenced by the folklore of the mandrake.

   It was supposedly used in witches flying ointment too and given its narcotic properties one can imagine some poor superstitious fool drinking a potion containing mandragora and seeing witches fly.

  The whole plant is said to be poisonous, although reportedly the ripe fruit as well as the leaves are edible. There is little evidence to point to the correct dose of either, however. This is what one of the older British herbalists, Turner had to say about mandragora in his “Nieuwe Herball”

  “Of the apples of mandrake, if a man smell of them they will make hym slepe and also if they be eaten. But they that smell to muche of the apples become dum . . . thys herbe diverse wayes taken is very jepardus for a man and may kill hym if he eat it or drynk it out of measure and have no remedy from it.... If mandragora be taken out of measure, by and by slepe ensueth and a great lousing of the strength with a forgetfulness.”

  The fruit of the mandrake has been called the devil’s apple and indeed, it smells rather like an apple, even though it doesn’t really look like one. It follows the flowers which can be purple or white tinged with purple at the tips of the petals.

 In the ancient world it was reputedly an aphrodisiac and this is its claim to fame in The Bible where it is mentioned in Genesis, when Rachel used it to get Jacob to impregnate her. It is again mentioned in The Song of Songs in the Book of Solomon in the context of love-making. Medicinally it was used to cure sterility.

  It was stated by Plutarch that during the Parthian Wars, Marcus Antonius’ soldiers were poisoned by mandrakes.

  Interestingly it was the English herbalist, John Gerard writing in the 16^th century who appeared to be the first to pour scorn on the alleged magical powers of the mandrake. He wrote that they were “old wives tales” which the (then) modern man would do best to forget.

  The plant contains hyoscine which is used as a pre-operation drug and is also used to prevent travel sickness. It also contains podophyllatoxin which is currently being studied for its effects on cancers and possible use in HIV treatments.

  Ointments were made as well as infusions for use externally to get rid of skin problems such as ulcerous sores. Its leaves have cooling properties and have been employed in poultices having first been boiled in milk and placed on the skin to get rid of ulcerous sores. The root was finely scraped and pounded to a pulp then put into brandy and drunk as a cure for rheumatism. It tastes foul and has to have its flavour masked.

  It can be steeped in wine for a week with cinnamon sticks and lots of saffron and sweetened with royal jelly and honey, although with those ingredients, it would be curious as to which was most effective against any disease. I think this is an ancient remedy which has had a resurgence in popularity as people look for different psychotropic experiences.

COMMON SUNDEW - INSECTIVOROUS PLANT WITH HEALTH BENEFITS: HISTORY, USES AND MEDICINAL BENEFITS OF SUNDEW

COMMON SUNDEW, ROUND-LEAF SUNDEW, DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA

 The Common sundew is an evergreen, insectivorous, (or carnivorous) plant which is native to parts of Europe including Britain but not the Mediterranean, North America and northern Asia. It is a semi-aquatic plant, preferring to grow in moist if not wet places such as on the edges of ponds. Its main claim to fame is that Charles Darwin devoted the first chapter of his book “Insectivorous Plants” published in 1875 to the common sundew. It is one of three members of the Droseraceae family found in Britain.

    It used to have some reputation as an aphrodisiac, especially when in the cordial made by distilling the plant, which was called Rosa solis or rosolio which is thought to have first been concocted in Turin during the Renaissance. It was a golden cordial which was flavoured with cinnamon, ginger and cloves, the ‘hot’ spices believed then to have aphrodisiac qualities. It also contained grains of paradise, and red rose leaves and some of the wealthier imbibers also put gold leaf, powdered pearls and coral into it as well as musk, amber and ambergris. Culpepper writing long after it had (probably) ceased to be fashionable seems quite scathing of the cordial made from it as you can see from this extract from his Complete Herbal. It seems that Rosa solis washed down the kissing comfits made from sea holly or eryngo.

“Government and virtues. The Sun rules it, and it is under the sign Cancer. Some authors gravely tell us that a water distilled from this plant is highly cordial and restorative; but it is more than probable that it never deserved the character given of it in that respect. The leaves, bruised and applied to the skin, erode it, and bring on such inflammations as are not easily removed. The ladies in some parts mix the juice with milk, as to make an innocent and safe application for the removal of freckles, sun-burn, and other discolourings of the skin. The juice, unmixed, will destroy warts and corns, if a little of it be frequently put upon them. These are effects which pronounce its internal use to be dangerous; and if it is not productive of bad consequences, when distilled with other ingredients, for cordial waters, &c, it is because its pernicious qualities are not of a nature to rise in distillation.”

  While it is clear that Culpeper didn’t think very highly of this plant, in homeopathy it is used for respiratory problems and it has antispasmodic properties which relieve wheezing and chronic bronchitis. It has also been found to have antibacterial properties and the plant is at its most beneficial medicinally when it is in flower. It is best to harvest it just as it begins to bloom in summer. It lies dormant in winter but in spring is quick to trap an insect with its red hairs which are on the leaf, and then it slowly digests the captured insect with its enzymes which are secreted at the tip of its hairs.

   The plant contains a natural antibiotic, plumbagin, which kills a number of pathogens and it has antifungal properties too. At one time it was regarded as a cure for old age in the USA, perhaps because a vegetable extract from the plant was used to treat arteriosclerosis with colloidal silicates. Now it is believed that it can help to reduce the amount of sugar in the blood.

  The juice from the plant has been used to curdle soya milk in the cheese-making process. This is useful if you are a vegetarian. However, the plant is now much rarer than it was in the past, so don’t harvest it from the wild. You can buy seeds and propagate the sundew at home in wet peat, and this will delight children who have a fascination for insectivorous plants.

GUAIACUM OFFICINALE - PRODUCER OF LIGNUM VITAE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GUAIACUM OFFICINALE

I

GUAIACUM OFFICINALE, LIGNUM VITAE  

The flower of this tree is the national flower of Jamaica, as it is a native tree of the West Indies and the North coast of South America. Its range stretches from the Florida Keys through to Venezuela, Honduras and Panama. The Spanish explorers came across this tree in the 16^th century in the Bahamas and adopted its name from one of the indigenous languages. It is an evergreen member of the Zygophyllaceae family and grows to around 60 feet tall. It was valued for its wood which is extremely hard and durable; it is so heavy that it sinks if put in water. It has been used for construction and to make small intricate parts of grandfather clocks and precision instruments, because of its longevity.

  Lignum vitae means living wood and it is known in the West Indies as the Tree of Life. Unfortunately it was the victim of deforestation as land was cleared for sugar cane plantations; it was placed on the IUCN red list of endangered species in 1998 and despite planting new trees, it has not been removed from the list.

  Its resin, which exudes in tear-shaped is valued in traditional medicine rather like myrrh and other tree resins. This resin contains vanillin, the polytriterpenoids guaiaguttin, and the resin acids, guaiaconic, guaianetic and guacic acids along with saponins. It has been used as a laxative, diuretic and to promote sweat in fevers.

  It has been traded as a commodity since 1508 and it was much used in Europe by medical practitioners who used it to treat syphilis along with the sassafras tree and sarsaparilla. It was introduced from the West Indies into the Asian subcontinent.

  Whether or not the tree can help cure syphilis and other STDs was not questioned until the 18^th century, and it is still open to some doubt. The wood used to be used for such ailments, even sawdust and shavings were incorporated into remedies. Now however, only the resin is used.

  This resin is believed to have anti-inflammatory properties and is used for rheumatism, arthritis and gout. When this comes from the tree it is a red-brown whi9ch changes to a blue-green hue when it is exposed to oxygen, and this is used for staining and if applied to a sore tooth is said to relieve toothache. If applied externally it is used for the pains of rheumatism and so on. Taken internally it is said to lower blood pressure and to relieve gout and arteriosclerosis. It is also valued when it is made into a wash or lotion for skin diseases.

  It is an endangered species, and there are many other plants that can be used to treat skin diseases and other ailments, so its best to avoid using this tree until, at least, it is off the endangered species list.

APPLES - ONE A DAY MAY REALLY KEEP THE DOCTOR AWAY: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF APPLES

APPLES

Apple trees are members of the Rosaceae family of plants so are related to the rose, apricots, plums, peaches, almonds and so on. They can be green, yellow, red and brown, with the tartest ones having green skin. I remember the cooking apples that grew in our garden and the taste of homemade apple pies. They were a definite green, and not like that of Granny Smith’s. I particularly like the brown russet apples that my great aunt always seemed to have a supply of, but I haven’t seen any of these for years. They were a chestnut brown and slightly rough resembling a kiwi a little.

  Apples have a very long history and it is believed that dessert apples began to spread from the forests of eastern Kazakhstan around 8,000 BC as our hunter-gathering ancestors moved around the globe. Apples are mentioned in ancient mythology, and there was a magic apple in Norse myths which gave eternal youth to the person who ate it. The Gardens of the Hesperides contained apple trees and although it is not specifically stated we have believed for centuries that it was the apple which led to our fall from Paradise when Eve tempted Adam, having herself been the victim of the serpent. For centuries apples have been associated with seduction and the fall from grace.

  Dried apples were found in Queen Pu-Abi’s tomb at Ur (near modern Basra in southern Iraq), and dated to around 2,500 BC. A Chinese diplomat, Feng Li gave up his prestigious position in order to graft fruit trees, peaches, almonds, persimmons, pears and apples, to trade them much to the horror of his royal colleagues, so great was his passion for fruit; this was in 5,000BC. Later Homer mentions orchards of apples and pears in his “Odyssey” (C.800 BC) and describes King Tantalus, being tantalized by sweet figs, pomegranates, pears, apples and juicy olives which were just out of his reach. In 332 BC Theophrastus states that there were 6 varieties of apple trees, and in 100 BC the Roman poet Horace said that Italy was almost one big orchard, claiming that the perfect meal began with eggs and ended with apples. In 50 BC the Roman orator and statesman, Cicero urged Romans to save the seeds from their apples so that new cultivars could be developed. Presumably they did this as in 79 AD or thereabouts, Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History that there were 20 varieties of apple. In 200 AD Galen the physician, was singing the praises of the sweet apple as an aid to digestion and the sour one for fainting and constipation. It was in 1904 that J. T. Stinson proclaimed to a Saint Louis Symposium that “an apple a day keep the doctor away.” However it took researchers until 2000 to discover powerful new antioxidants in apples when the University of California announced the results of research undertaken there.

  Apples contain phytonutrients which combined with the relatively small amount of fibre they contain work to help prevent spikes in blood sugar levels. The polyphenols in apples help to promote the secretion of insulin in the pancreas and increase the absorption of glucose from the blood. The constituents in apples lower blood fats when the apple is eaten whole that means including the skin. The apple’s skin contains most of the phytonutrients with red apple skin having anthocyanins and yellow ones carotene. Apples work to balance the bacteria in the digestive tract and research is ongoing into this activity.

  Research has shown that eating whole apples can help prevent or delay age-related macular degeneration (eye disease) as well as help to prevent lung cancer and asthma, although research is ongoing into the effects apples have on asthma symptoms. It is believed that the bioflavonoid phloridizin in apples may prevent bone loss and so help with osteoporosis. Apples can also help prevent neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, so perhaps an apple a day may really keep the doctor at bay, if not away.

  One bad apple really can damage the whole lot, as when an apple is bruised it releases relatively high amounts of the gas, ethylene which contaminates all the other apples, so remove any decaying apples from storage.

  Apples contain some vitamin C, some of the B-complex vitamins including B1, 2 and 3 as well as B6, vitamins E and K and folate. As for minerals they include calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, potassium and a little sodium. They also have Omega-3 and -5 fatty acids along with amino acids and lutein, zeaxanthin and choline.

  Apples have found a place in Cockney rhyming slang, with “apples and pears” meaning “stairs”, which illustrates how common apples are. There other expressions which show the value we have placed on apples, with one being “the apple of one’s eye” meaning something or someone who is thought very dear and valuable perhaps someone who can do no wrong.

   Apples have captured the imagination of poets since Homer’s time and Robert Frost wrote several poems about apple orchards and apple picking which are very vivid and illustrative.

  You can cook apples, as in apple pie, which is a favourite dish on both sides of the Atlantic. Apples can be made into jam and preserves, pickled and made into cider. They can be served with meat (apple sauce with goose or pork) and can be put into fruit salads and on breakfast cereals as well as being good with natural yoghurt and honey along with other fresh fruit and nuts such as walnuts. Personally I like to eat whole apples and these are much better both nutritionally and health-wise for you than having applesauce or apple juice. This is mainly because most of the health-giving properties of an apple are contained in their skins.