THE CORPSE FLOWER - WORLD'S LARGEST KNOWN FLOWER: HISTORY AND USES OF RAFFLESIA ARNOLDII

THE CORPSE FLOWER, RAFFLESIA ARNOLDII 

The Corpse flower is so named because its scent is reminiscent of that of rotting meat, which attracts the carrion flies that pollinate it in its natural habitat in the tropical rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo. It is a weird plant as it is rootless, stemless leafless and nonphytosynthetic. There was some debate as to whether it was in fact a flower of a fungus and after having its DNA sequenced it was still up for debate. It has been placed in the Euphorbiaceae family- the spurge family of plants along with poinsettia, the castor bean tree and the yucca or cassava, although it is perhaps better placed in its own unique family of Rafflesiaceae along with the other twelve known plants in the same genus.

  The plant is a parasite which grows in Tetrastigma leucostaphyllum a vine which is related to that of the grape. Successful pollination of the flowers is rare and they only open for about five days. The good news is that because of ecotourism and the financial benefits the plant brings to local inhabitants, it is protected by them, but the bad news is that the human disturbance caused by avid sight-seers is causing fewer flowers to bloom in the areas in which they grow. The flowers can measure a metre across and the largest ones can weigh up to 15 pounds which is approximately seven kilos. It is the largest known single flower in the world, which is why it attracts so much attention. The other flowers in the genus are smaller.

  The corpse flower is the symbol of Borneo and figures on stamps and tourist items. All the species in the genus are either threatened or endangered species because of loss of habitat. In traditional medicine the flower buds of this plant are used as aphrodisiacs and to bring pain relief during and after childbirth.

  It is believed that they have not been successfully cultivated outside their native habitat unless the vine in which they grow has been transplanted, although there have been several efforts to cultivate them.

  The first Westerner to have discovered and made notes of this genus was a French explorer Louis Auguste Deschamps (1765-1842). He was captured by the British on his return voyage to France in 1798, when Britain and France were at war. His notes were confiscated and were only rediscovered in the National History Museum, London, in 1954.

  In the meantime the British botanist, Joseph Arnold (1782-1818) and the famous Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (1781-1826), who founded modern Singapore, came across the species when one was found by a Malay servant of theirs in Sumatra. Shortly after the find Arnold died of a fever, and Lady Raffles had suggested the plant be named after him. In the event, it was named after both men when it was officially described in 1821.

  The fruit which appears after the flowers have withered is food for ground squirrels and tree shrews which inhabit the rainforests.

  J. Hunt Cooke penned these lines after seeing a wax model of this flower at Kew Gardens, London, in 1877.

    “What strange gigantic flower is here

      That shows its lonesome pallid face

      Where neither stems nor leaves appear.”

A fitting description of this flower, one feels.

  

SOY OR SOYA BEANS - USEFUL SOURCE OF PROTEIN: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF SOY BEANS

SOYA OR SOY BEANS, GLYCINE MAX 

In British English we say soya bean while in US English it’s a soybean, but they are the same thing. They originated in South-East Asia and were first domesticated in China sometime around 1100 BC. From there they spread to other Asian countries where they were cultivated by the first century AD (including Japan). The soya plant is a member of the Leguminoseae or Fabaceae family which includes lupins, kudzu or pueraria, liquorice, carob, peas, beans, chickpeas, indigo, alfalfa and broom to name but a few. Its wild ancestor is Glycine soja.

  The first European to describe and illustrate the plant was Engelbert Kaempfer, the German botanist, in his “Amoenitatum Exoticarum” published in Germany in 1712. He also gave a detailed description (some say the most detailed to date) of the process of making shoyu (Japanese soy sauce) and miso. Before this date six Europeans had written about soy food products, miso, soy sauce and tofu but they had not realized how it was made and were ignorant of the fact that the products were made from the soya bean.

  Shoyu was imported into Europe long before the soya bean, first by the Dutch in 1670 who supplied it to King Louis XIV of France for use at his banquets. It was a luxury item at that time, just as it had been when it was first introduced into Japan, centuries before. John Locke, the English philosopher, wrote that it was available at a London restaurant in 1679 and during the 18^th century soy sauce was popular in Europe, and widely used in Britain by the end of that century. The famous Lea and Perrins Worcestershire sauce had a base of soy sauce and was spiced up to market it as a different food item.

  The soy plant was grown in Botanical Gardens in France, The Netherlands and England as a curiosity only, during the 18^th century. We know that Benjamin Franklin sent some seeds to a friend of his in 1770, but they didn’t really come into their own until George Washington Carver took an interest in then and realized that they were a valuable source of oil and protein in 1904. He persuaded farmers to rotate their crops and plant nitrogen fixers such as peanuts and soya plants (also sweet potatoes) and then plant cotton in the third year and farmers were amazed to find that the next cotton crop was better than it had been for many years.

  Henry Ford had his scientists make strong durable plastic from soya beans and made a car entirely out of soya bean plastic. When the plant was first introduced into the American colonies by Europeans in 1765 it was called “Chinese vetches.” The soya bean has been one of the five main plant foods in China along with rice, wheat, rye, barley and millet for centuries, but the beans were fist exported to Europe only in 1908.Now soya oil is used for many purposes, in the form of flour it can be added to wheat flour and helps compensate for the lack of the amino acids, tryptophan and lysine in the grain flour. Sixty pounds or one bushel of the beans yields eleven pounds of oil and forty-eight of meal. The oil can be used as a green fuel and lubricant as well as for culinary purposes, while the lecithin extracted from the oil is a natural emulsifier and used to stabilize the ingredients of some food products, as it makes fat and water compatible, and can prevent cocoa butter and chocolate from separating for example. The oil is used in margarines, salad dressing and can be found in paints, varnishes and printers’ ink. The plants themselves have always been used as fodder for animals, so the whole plant is useful.

  Soy beans in our diet have many health benefits and the same is true of tofu, soy milk, tempeh and miso as these soya products contain isoflavones which can lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The cooking oil and soya sauce do not contain them however. Soy foods may be beneficial for menopausal and pot menopausal women as they can help maintain healthy bones and a healthy cardio-vascular system. They do not increase the risks of breast cancer as was previously believed, but on the contrary may help protect from it. They can also help to stabilize blood sugar levels and so are helpful to sufferers of Tye-2 diabetes. It is also believed now that they may boost the functions of the brain. Soy protein may also help protect against atherosclerosis by increasing the levels of nitric acid in the blood, which improves blood vessel dilation and inhibits damage caused by free radicals.

  The choline found in soybeans lessens chronic inflammation, while a sphingolipid in the beans, soy glucosylceramide may promote gastro-intestinal health and inhibit the formation of cancerous tumours.

  Soya beans also contain dietary fibre which can reduce the risk of colon cancer. Apart from the substances already mentioned above, soy beans are excellent sources of molybdenum, tryptophan, the minerals manganese, iron, and phosphorous as well as containing selenium, magnesium, copper, calcium, sodium and zinc. They contain the B-complex vitamins, B1 thiamin, B2 riboflavin, B3 niacin, B6 and folate. Soy beans are also sources of the vitamins K, A and C along with Omega-3 and -6 fatty acids, 18 amino acids,  and the isoflavone genistein which may help us stay thin, and which is generally considered to have anti-cancer properties. The beans are also excellent sources of protein and a good substitute for meat, at least occasionally.

  The whole beans are the best for our health, although tofu, soya bean sprouts, tempeh and miso also have some benefits. The beans can be cooked in the same way as chickpeas or borlotti beans, and the fresh green beans (called endamame) are particularly tasty. Unfortunately perhaps the USA is the biggest exporter of soy beans and their oil, and these are GM crops. As we don’t really know what the long-term health effects of GM food are as it has not been around long enough for valid research, it could be that soy beans may not be as healthy as they would appear at the moment. However it is probably true that if eaten in moderation they won’t be very harmful.

CINQUEFOIL- PROTECTIVE PLANT:HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF CINQUEFOIL

CINQUEFOIL, POTENTILLA REPTANS 

Cinquefoil is so named because it has five leaves (cinque=five and folia, leaves). It is also called creeping cinquefoil as it creeps along the ground on tendrils as do strawberries, and five-finger grass or five leaf grass. It is very closely related to Silverweed and is in the same genus Potentilla which implies the herb has strength and power; and is a member of the Rosaceae family which includes fruit trees such as plum, apple, apricot and peach among others.

  The plant has been associated with protection from witches, but has also been used in spells and “Witches Ointment” in the Middle Ages. In France, in Normandy and Burgundy there are examples of cinquefoil carved in churches dating from the 11^th century. In heraldry too Potentilla or cinquefoil is a symbol of strength and honour, power and loyalty. It is native to Europe and grows rather profusely in Britain. It makes good ground cover, but is an annoying weed, as it tends to invade lawns.

  In the Middle Ages in parts of Britain, it was used in a concoction for baiting fishing nets, along with the juice of houseleeks, wheat, which had been boiled with marjoram and thyme and the common nettle. The witches were supposed to have made their ointment with the delightfully named wolfsbane, this plant and smallage, along with the fat of recently dead children, dug from their graves all of which were added to well- pounded wheat. This gives a whole new take on the story of Hansel and Gretel!

  A protection charm could be made by picking a perfect five-fingered leaf on a Wednesday when the moon was waxing and then pressing it in a Bible (one of the heaviest books). The plant could be hung from the bed or door to protect the house and bring a restful sleep, and the leaves were thought to represent health or luck, power, wisdom, love and money.

  Its flowers are partially closed in dull weather and completely close at night rather in the same way as wood sorrel does and of course Tickle Me the sensitive plant.

  The plant has astringent properties so was used as a remedy for diarrhoea which makes sense because of its tannin content. Like silverweed the roots are also edible and can be boiled having, so it is said a taste similar to chestnuts or parsnips.

  Culpeper had this to say of the plant: -

   “It is an especial herb used in all inflammations and fevers, whether infectious or pestilential or, among other herbs, to cool and temper the blood and humours in the body; as also for all lotions, gargles and infections; for sore mouths, ulcers, cancers, fistulas and other foul or running sores.

   The juice drank, about four ounces at a time, for certain days together, cureth the quinsey and yellow jaundice, and taken for 30 days cureth the falling sickness. The roots boiled in vinegar and the decoction held in the mouth easeth toothache.

   The juice or decoction taken with a little honey removes hoarseness and is very good for coughs.

   The root boiled in vinegar, being applied, heals inflammations, painful sores and the shingles. The same also, boiled in wine, and applied to any joint full of pain, ache or the gout in the hands, or feet or the hip-joint, called the sciatica, and the decoction thereof drank the while, doth cure them and easeth much pain in the bowels.

   The roots are also effectual to reduce ruptures, being used with other things available to that purpose, taken either inwardly or outwardly, or both; as also bruises or hurts by blows, falls or the like, and to stay the bleeding of wounds in any part, inward or outward.”

  The ancient Welsh physicians of Myddfai had other uses for it and said: -

“A sterile woman may have a potion prepared for her by means of the following herbs, viz:—St. John's wort, yew, agrimony, amphibious persicaria, creeping cinque foil, mountain club moss, orpine and pimpernel, taking an emetic in addition.”

  You can make a decoction of the plant with 1½ ounces of the root to 2 pints of water and boil this until the liquid reduces by half.  An infusion can be made with 1 ounce of the plant by pouring a pint of boiling water over it and letting this steep for 25 minutes before straining and drinking. If you have used the flowering tops of the plant this is good for menstrual cramps and diarrhoea.

  Cinquefoil has even made its appearance in English literature and here is one reference to it by John Clare in his poem, “The Eternity of Nature.”

  “But flowers, how many own that mystic power,

   With five leaves ever making up the flower?

   The five-leaved grass, mantling its golden cup

   Of flowers – five leaves make all for which I stoop.”

  However, as yet the medical profession has done little research on this prolific little plant.

CORN COCKLE - ONCE A WEED, NOW RARE: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF CORN COCKLE

CORN COCKLE, AGROSTEMMA GITHAGO 

The corn cockle is a native of Europe and is believed to have arrived in Britain on the backs (possibly quite literally) of Iron Age farmers, as it grew among crops of grain such as rye, which seems to have been its favourite neighbour in Britain, wheat and barley. Like the red poppy and blue cornflower, it flourished in cultivated land. Now it is a very rare sight in the wild in Britain, but can be bought for gardens.

  It is a member of the pink family of plants so is related to carnations, cloves, soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) and the soapnut or reetha.  The seeds and roots of the plant contain saponins which are toxic and so should not be eaten. However leaching (soaking in several changes of water for a day or so) generally rids plants of their toxins. It is said that the leaves of the corn cockle may be eaten as a vegetable in times of famine.

  The plant was extremely common in agriculture land in Shakespeare’s time and earlier, and seeds have been found in cess pits at York and other archaeological sites in Britain. It has been suggested by some that the seeds were an adulterant of bread, which like ergot, a fungus, could have lead to debility and made the population in the Middle Ages susceptible to leprosy a common disease at that time. This was discussed in 1961 by Professor Harry Godwin and K. Bachem. John Gerard writing in the 16^th century said that the corn cockle was often to be found in bread which it spoiled.

  Culpeper has this to say of the plant in his Herbal of the 17^th century: -

  “This unprofitable guest amongst corn is of Saturnine quality, causeth giddiness of the head, and stupefies if it gets amongst the corn to be made with it into bread, and, howsoever taken, it is dangerous and hurtful; although some ignorant persons have mistaken it for the right nigella, or used it instead of yuray or darnel to the great danger of the patient.” (“right nigella” is nigella sativa from which we get kalvanji or black seeds)

  However the Welsh Physicians of Myddfai have it in one of their remedies for pneumonia, taken along with other herbs: -

“Let (the patient) take, for three successive days, of the following herbs; hemlock, agrimony, herb Robert, and asarabacca, then let him undergo a three day's course of aperients. When the disease is thus removed from the bronchial tubes, an emetic should be given him (daily) to the end of nine days. Afterwards let a medicine be prepared, by digesting the following herbs in wheat ale or red wine: madder, sharp dock, anise, agrimony, daisy, round birthwort, meadow sweet, yellow goat's beard, heath, water avens, woodruff, crake berry, the corn cockle, caraway, and such other herbs as will seem good to the physician.”

  It gets a mention in Shakespeare’s “Coriolanus” in Act III scene I when Coriolanus and other senators are discussing a recent gift of corn to the poor, and liken them and their ingratitude for the gift to the “cockle”

“Coriolanus: …In soothing them we nourish ’gainst our senate

                     The cockle of rebellion, insolence, sedition,

                     Which we ourselves have plough’d for, sow’d and scatter’d,

                     By mingling them with us, the honour’d number.”

 In the Middle Ages the seeds from the corn cockle were prescribed by the apothecaries of the time as a laxative and were more harmful than jamalgota. In folk medicine systems in Europe the seeds were prescribed for treating cancer and tumours, as well as for hard swellings of the uterus (apostemes). The saponins were responsible for the local anaesthetic uses of the plant, but the seeds cause acute poisoning if taken in large doses resulting in vomiting, vertigo, difficulties in breathing, diarrhoea and excessive salivation, amongst other symptoms. The seeds contain githagenin which can get rid of intestinal worms, but the plant is best left alone and admired as a garden ornamental. If you do plant these in the garden, they need support as they can grow quite tall and bend under their own weight, producing a solitary flower which is pink-purple at the top of the spindly stem.

BRAZILIAN GRAPE TREE - LITTLE-KNOWN OUTSIDE ITS GROWING AREA: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF THE JABUTICABA TREE

BRAZILIAN GRAPE TREE, JABUTICABA, MYRCIARIA CAULIFLORA 

As you might have already guessed the Jabuticaba tree is a native of Brazil, where it has been cultivated since Pre-Columbian times and this particular species is native to a south-eastern corner of that country. There are several types of grape tree, which bear different fruit, however they all have one thing in common- the white flowers which are the precursors of the fruit grow straight from the trunk and branches of the tree, and so do the fruits. When in full bloom the trees look as though they are covered with snow. The tree is a member of the Myrtaceae (myrtle) family which means that it is a distant cousin of the eucalyptus tree, allspice and guavas.

  Jabuti means tortoise and caba means place in the local Tupi language, so the trees grow in the place of tortoises. The tree is a slow growing evergreen which can reach heights of forty-five feet in its natural habitat, although they don’t grow that tall in southern Florida, where they have been introduced. They were introduced into California in 1904, but by 1939 none had survived. Now some are grown in Florida, but they remain trees which flourish best in tropical climates. Some different varieties of grape tree grow in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. Because they are one of nature’s curiosities they are grown enthusiastically by people who adore bonsai (miniature) trees.

  In their natural habitat, and if they are irrigated well and looked after they can produce up to five crops of fruit every year, but usually only manage two. The fruit are eagerly awaited in the areas where they grow, but they are not sold very far afield because they perish quickly and cannot be exported. They are eaten raw, although one shouldn’t eat the skins as they are very astringent as they have a high tannin content, which could be harmful if eaten in large quantities for a prolonged period of time. They are eaten raw or used to make jams and marmalades, although they have to have added pectin to set. Wine can also be made from the fruit which can be sweet or slightly acid and astringent, depending on the variety. The fruit can be bright green when ripe, or purple-black, red-purple and burgundy-purple tasting spicy and slightly acid. It can range from between two and six centimetres in diameter, and has white, gelatinous flesh which clings to the seeds it contains (from 1 to 4). It has been likened to a muscadine grape (hence the name grape tree) with larger seeds.

  In Brazil the skins of the fruit are sun-dried and made into an astringent decoction and used in traditional medicine for asthma, diarrhoea, and it is also used as a gargle for chronic tonsillitis and sore throats. The fruit contains vitamins B1, (thiamin), B2, (riboflavin) and B3 (niacin), vitamin C in the form of ascorbic acid, along with the minerals calcium, iron and phosphorous. It also contains the amino acids, lysine and trptophan. The colour of the skin (purple-black) shows that it contains anthocyanins as do aubergines and blueberries, bilberries, blackberries and blackcurrants, which have potent antioxidant properties. Extracts from the fruit have demonstrated some anti-cancer properties in several studies, but more research is needed into its compounds. A unique (so far) one has been found, jaboticabin, a depside, and it is believed that the fruit has anti-inflammatory as well as antioxidant properties.

  If you have never seen pictures like these before, the tree is real and although it looks like one of nature’s jokes like the Nipple fruit, it may have some very beneficial properties.

COMMON EVENING PRIMROSE - NOT ONLY FOR FEMALE PROBLEMS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF THE EVENING PRIMROSE

COMMON EVENING PRIMROSE, OENOTHERA BIENNIS 

There are around 125 species of Oenothera, or the evening primrose, but the common one which we get evening primrose oil from is this yellow one which originated millennia ago in Central America and spread throughout the North American continent. It was taken to Britain and Germany by early colonists (it went the opposite way to the usual route for medicinal plants) who learned of its uses from the Native Americans. It is a member of the Onagraceae or willowherb family which includes the rose bay willowherb and fuchsias. It is not related to the primrose from which it takes its name because of the colour and shape of its flowers.

  The name of the genus, Oenothera comes from the Greek with oeno meaning a honeyed wine (like nectar) and thera meaning hunter or seeker, so the evening primrose is the plant for nectar seekers.

  The flowers on the top of the stem bloom first, and so have seed pods first, but the whole plant continues to flower in layers and continues growing until autumn. It flowers in the evening (as its name suggests) and is pollinated by butterflies and moths as well as other insects which fly during the evening.

  The whole plant is edible, and the flowers can be used in salads or as garnishes and a yellow dye can also be produced from them. The young shoots can be used in salads and these have a peppery flavour and should be used sparingly. It is the seeds from which the oil is extracted and these can be eaten in the young seed pods or roasted when extracted from the pods. Just roast them in the oven at 350° F for 15 – 20 minutes and put them on bread or in savoury dishes. Use them as you would flax seeds.

  The seeds contain Gamma-Linoleic acid (GLA) which is rarely found in plants, and this is an essential fatty acid which the body cannot manufacture. It is believed to have positive effect on the sex hormones, testosterone and oestrogen and to lower blood cholesterol levels and reduce blood pressure. It helps to prevent hardening of the arteries and so helps to keep the cardio-vascular system healthy. In some cases it has shown to be beneficial in the treatment of cirrhosis of the liver.

  Research is ongoing into the effects of GLA and the other constituents of evening primrose oil and the plant, as it has become a very popular remedy for the treatment of PMS/PMT and other menstrual and menopausal symptoms although there is scant scientific evidence to support its use. GLA is found in borage, bhang (hemp) and blackcurrant oils too.

  The oil is also used externally for eczema, and internally for rheumatoid arthritis. It does seem to be effective as an anti-inflammatory pain –reliever and in curing skin problems although trials have not been as detailed as they could have been, as some patients dropped out of the program.

  Two studies have been done into the effectiveness of the oil on the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy, namely numbness in the legs and feet and tingling, burning, pain and lack of sensation. These were reported as being successful in that patients reported some easing of the symptoms, but it is too early to say categorically that GLA can help with these symptoms.

  The bark and leaves of the plant have astringent and sedative properties and have been used in traditional medicine systems to relieve whooping cough, gastro-intestinal problems and asthma. There is little medical evidence to support these uses however.

  Native Americans used the whole plant in poultices to help heal bruising much in the same way as herbalists such as Culpeper used mallow and pellitory. They also used it as a wound healer or vulnerary.

  The roots of this plant are also edible and said to resemble those of salsify both in appearance and taste. They taste a little like parsnips too according to some people.

  We have to wait and see if science can catch up with folk medicine and confirm or deny the benefits which many say they have experienced after using evening primrose oil.

 

PELLITORY - A CULINARY HERB: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PELLITORY

PELLITORY, MOUNT ATLAS DAISY, SPANISH CHAMOMILE, ANACYCLUS PYRETHRUM

Pellitory has been used in medicine since ancient times and originates in Algeria, although it is now grown in the Himalayas (cultivated) and various other parts of the world. It can be used as a herb in stews and so on as it has a peppery taste, perhaps because of the piperine–like substance in it. It is a member of the Asteraceae/Compositae or daisy family so is a relative of marigolds, chamomile, which it resembles closely and a whole host of other flowering plants.

  Dioscorides and Pliny agreed that it was useful against intermittent fevers, while later European herbalists such as Hildegard von Bingen in her “Physica” states that it was used to get rid of waste products in the blood and to build good blood, as well as “for pure intelligence” – I am translating this straight from the Latin and this is all it says. She also writes that it is good when used in cooking for those recovering from a debilitating illness as well as for healthy individuals as it keeps ill-health away. She also says that it clears the head of mucous and clears the eyes, and aids digestion. She describes it as being a temperate herb with a dry warmth and a powerful action.(Perhaps its the European equivalent of the Intellect Tree.)

  Culpeper writing later in the 17^th century agrees in the main: -

“Government and virtues. It is under the government of Mercury, and I am persuaded it is one of the best purgers of the brain that grows. An ounce of the juice taken in a draught of Muskadel an hour before the fit of the ague comes, it will assuredly drive away the ague at the second or third time taken at the farthest. Either the herb or root dried and chewed in the mouth, purges the brain of phlegmatic humours; thereby not only easing pains in the head and teeth, but also hinders the distilling of the brain upon the lungs and eyes, thereby preventing coughs, phthisicks and consumption, the apoplexy and falling sickness. It is an excellently approved remedy in the lethargy. The powder of the herb or root being snuffed up the nostrils, procures sneezing, and eases the head-ache; being made into an ointment with hog's grease, it takes away black and blue spots occasioned by blows or falls, and helps both the gout and sciatica.”

  He also says that it resembles yarrow.

  It has also been used as an insecticide and a tonic for the nervous system. In India it is used for malaria and cholera and is given as a tonic to aid digestion. It is applied externally as a poultice or compress for a headache, and also is a traditional aphrodisiac. Some herbalists recommend it for diabetes and for erectile dysfunctions combined with other herbs such as puncture vine.

  It has been grown in Britain for centuries although Culpeper says that it needs tender loving care to flourish in the climate, and it may even have arrived in the British Isles prior to the Roman conquest of 55 BC. It has been used in a cordial in Arab countries and was familiar to the Arab physicians of the Middle Ages.

  It has been used as a gargle with cold water and honey to relieve sore throats and relieves the dryness of the mouth and promotes the flow of saliva if chewed. A tincture made from the plant has been used for toothache, either rubbed on the gums or put into a decaying tooth with a cotton wool swab.

  The root has been applied as a counter-irritant to joints and limbs afflicted by rheumatism and arthritis and it seems to affect the nerve endings as it causes redness and a tingling sensation. It was once believed that if you chewed the root regularly over a period of several months it would help sufferers of rheumatic and neuralgic pains in the head and face.

  The main active ingredient in the volatile oil from pellitory seems to be pyrethrine or pellitorin an alkaloid, along with lignans such as sesamine (also found in sesame seeds), inulin (a starchy substance), and tannins. Lignans such as those found in flax seeds have anti-inflammatory properties.

  Research is still being carried out on pellitory so we will have to wait and see what health benefits scientists say this plant has. Probably many of the old uses of the herb will prove to have scientific backing.

OYSTER MUSHROOMS - GOURMET TREATS: HEALTH BENEFITS AND RECIPE WITH OYSTER MUSHROOMS

OYSTER MUSHROOMS, PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS

I have always been a fan of oyster mushrooms, but you can’t imagine my delight when my husband came back with a couple of packets of these instead of the usual button mushrooms, or khombi as they are known here in Pakistan. I like them almost as much as chanterelles. (They are also much cheaper here than elsewhere in the world.)

  Oyster mushrooms grow on trees or wood in layers, and because they take their nutrients form their host the caps may come in different colours, dark brown, white, pink, yellow or grey. (Mine were white.) These have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 3,000 years, and of course have been eaten for much longer than that. These mushrooms may be eaten raw or cooked and have a meaty texture. You can simply cook them in butter or in an omelette, or throw them into casseroles, soups and stews without frying them first which is how I cook them. Use them in recipes which call for mushrooms without specifying the variety.

  If you have ever had a Guinness, beef and oyster pie, then you will know the texture of the oyster, and I think this is the reason these mushrooms have been given that name. They don’t really taste of oysters, and don’t really look like them, but the texture is much the same.

  All mushrooms contain ergothionine which has potent antioxidant properties, which help keep our body cells healthy and free from the ravages of free-radicals which can damage healthy cells and cause them to become cancerous. These properties also help our cardio-vascular system. Oyster mushrooms also contain lovastin which is found in cholesterol-lowering drugs. They also have antiviral and antibacterial properties, so are very good for our health as they can help stimulate the immune system.

   Oyster mushrooms contain an active compound, benzaldehyde, which has antibacterial properties, and it also has some antiviral activities too. They are a good source of B-complex vitamins, particularly riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3) as well as thiamin (B1) and pantothenic acid. As for minerals, they are good for your daily intake of iron, phosphorous, and calcium and they also contain most of the other minerals the body needs, such as zinc and selenium. They also contain some vitamin C and amino acids. They contain a little unsaturated or good fat and give you more protein per serving than meat without the fat and cholesterol, and as they don’t have to be fried, you are in a winning situation if you add them to a calorie controlled diet.

  The terpenoids in mushrooms have demonstrable anti-inflammatory properties and research in ongoing into the other health benefits that mushrooms may have. It seems that there are some polysaccharides in them which have exhibited antitumour properties, so eating mushrooms, and particularly these oyster mushrooms, can have great health benefits if you eat them regularly.

Tasty Beef and Oyster Mushroom Sauce for Pasta

Ingredients

250 gr minced (ground) beef

200 gr oyster mushrooms sliced into medium-sized pieces,

2 onions, finely sliced

3 cloves garlic, finely chopped

4 medium-sized tomatoes, chopped roughly

1 tbsp cumin seeds

1 dstsp chilli powder

1 tsp turmeric (haldi)

1 tsp coriander seeds

1 handful shredded fresh coriander leaves

olive oil

salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste

1 tbsp Worcestershire sauce (optional)

broccoli florets or spinach (otional)

Method

Heat the oil in a pan and add the cumin seeds, chilli powder,turmeric and coriander seeds, and fry for a minute.

Add the onion and garlic and fry until the onion is translucent.

Add the beef and cook until it is no longer pink.

Put the tomatoes in the pan and add about 2 glasses of water.

Bring to the boil and add the salt and pepper. Now add the mushrooms and Worcestershire sauce along with the green vegetables if you are using them.

Cook for twenty minutes and leave to settle with the lid on while you cook the pasta,

Stir in the coriander leaves, reheat and serve with pasta.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE - SUPERSTITIONS, FOLKLORE AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF MANDRAKE

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE, MANDRAGORA OFFICINARUM 

European mandrake has a long history of uses, as well as superstitions. It was not until the spread of Humanism and the Renaissance that the thinking man began to reject the lore surrounding the mandrake root and stripped bare the uses it might have.

  This mandrake is famous for its root which can be forked, and in the dim and distant past it was thought to be a root which had human forms, and to this end it was shaped into amulets by skillful carvers, to ward off evil spirits and spirit possession as well as to safeguard the owner or wearer from all ills that could possibly befall him or her. Skillful carvers often substituted bryony roots for those of the mandrake and passed them off as such, commanding high prices for the counterfeit goods.

  In the ancient world however mandrake was used for its medicinal properties, with patients in Rome (so we are told by Pliny) chewing on mandrake root prior to undergoing surgery. The root has pain-killing properties and has been used for toothaches and as a sleep inducer for those who were in prolonged pain. Small doses were given to cure depression (melancholy) and mental disturbances, although overdoses actually drove people mad.

  Hildegard von Bingen the abbess who studied herbs and medicine noted that mandrake was responsible for “illusions” while Plato recommended its use as an anesthetic and Aristotle thought it was good to induce sleep. There are cuneiform writings from Assyria, Babylon and Mesopotamia which show it was used in medicine, for a whole variety of ailments including abscesses, ulcers, labour pains, and many more.

  The ancient Egyptians used it as evidenced by its inclusion in the Ebers Papyrus dating back to around 1,700 BC, which is a list of plants and their medical uses. There are pictures of it in King Tutankhamen’s tomb, and it is clear from this evidence that it was held in high regard in ancient Egypt. It is believed to have arrived there from Palestine as mandrake or mandragora as it was known, is native to the Mediterranean, and stretches throughout the Aegean and North Africa as well as being present in the Iberian peninsula.

  Mandrake is a member of the Solanaceae family and so is a relative of Belladonna or deadly nightshade, which also makes it a relative of the tomato and potato both of which were treated with suspicion when first introduced into Europe. Mandrake although a native, had the same reputation in the Middle Ages and earlier, as the Anglo-Saxons certainly believed that it was a magical root. It was said to grow under gallows trees where murderers had been hanged, and if one dug up the root death would surely follow.

Josephus (c. 37 AD – c. 100, Jerusalem) gives the following directions for pulling it up:

“A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this the root can be handled without fear.”

  The root, because it seemed to have human form, although in fact it looks more like a gnarled carrot or parsnip, was said to scream hideously and groan when removed from the soil and anyone who heard the scream would die. If you saw the Harry Potter movies or read the books you will remember that Harry’s classmates were given ear protectors when they had to repot the mandrakes, but of course poor Neville Longbottom passed out. Clearly Ms Rowling had been influenced by the folklore of the mandrake.

   It was supposedly used in witches flying ointment too and given its narcotic properties one can imagine some poor superstitious fool drinking a potion containing mandragora and seeing witches fly.

  The whole plant is said to be poisonous, although reportedly the ripe fruit as well as the leaves are edible. There is little evidence to point to the correct dose of either, however. This is what one of the older British herbalists, Turner had to say about mandragora in his “Nieuwe Herball”

  “Of the apples of mandrake, if a man smell of them they will make hym slepe and also if they be eaten. But they that smell to muche of the apples become dum . . . thys herbe diverse wayes taken is very jepardus for a man and may kill hym if he eat it or drynk it out of measure and have no remedy from it.... If mandragora be taken out of measure, by and by slepe ensueth and a great lousing of the strength with a forgetfulness.”

  The fruit of the mandrake has been called the devil’s apple and indeed, it smells rather like an apple, even though it doesn’t really look like one. It follows the flowers which can be purple or white tinged with purple at the tips of the petals.

 In the ancient world it was reputedly an aphrodisiac and this is its claim to fame in The Bible where it is mentioned in Genesis, when Rachel used it to get Jacob to impregnate her. It is again mentioned in The Song of Songs in the Book of Solomon in the context of love-making. Medicinally it was used to cure sterility.

  It was stated by Plutarch that during the Parthian Wars, Marcus Antonius’ soldiers were poisoned by mandrakes.

  Interestingly it was the English herbalist, John Gerard writing in the 16^th century who appeared to be the first to pour scorn on the alleged magical powers of the mandrake. He wrote that they were “old wives tales” which the (then) modern man would do best to forget.

  The plant contains hyoscine which is used as a pre-operation drug and is also used to prevent travel sickness. It also contains podophyllatoxin which is currently being studied for its effects on cancers and possible use in HIV treatments.

  Ointments were made as well as infusions for use externally to get rid of skin problems such as ulcerous sores. Its leaves have cooling properties and have been employed in poultices having first been boiled in milk and placed on the skin to get rid of ulcerous sores. The root was finely scraped and pounded to a pulp then put into brandy and drunk as a cure for rheumatism. It tastes foul and has to have its flavour masked.

  It can be steeped in wine for a week with cinnamon sticks and lots of saffron and sweetened with royal jelly and honey, although with those ingredients, it would be curious as to which was most effective against any disease. I think this is an ancient remedy which has had a resurgence in popularity as people look for different psychotropic experiences.