JHAND, MESQUITE TREE - FLOURISHES IN DESERTS: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF PROSOPIS CINERARIA

HONEY MESQUITE TREE, JHAND, KANDI, KHEJRI, PROSOPIS CINERARIA 

This mesquite tree is native to the Indian sub-continent, Afghanistan and Iran through to the Arabian Peninsula, although it was introduced into Abu Dhabi to stabilize sand dunes. It is a member of the Fabaceae or Leguminoseae family and so related to peas and beans, as well as kudzu or pueraria, senna, the dhak tree, alfalfa, carob, broom, lupins, chickpeas and peanuts to name just a few.

  It can flourish in drought-ridden areas and is a nitrogen-fixer, making the soil it grows in more fertile. And because it has a tap root which can grow to 3 metres it does not compete with plants which grow around it for moisture. In India and Pakistan sorghum and millet are grown under it as it protects them from the blistering summer sun under its canopy. It can also protect maize (sweet corn), wheat and mustard which can also be found growing in its vicinity.

  Its bark and leaf galls are used for tanning in the leather industry as it contains tannins, which give it astringent qualities. The bark is a little sweet and edible in times of famine, and like Babul (Acacia nilotica) it produces a gum which can be substituted for gum Arabic, produced between the months of May and June.

  Its trunk is not formed in a way which lends the wood to timber but it is strong and durable and used for posts, tool handles, bat frames and firewood and charcoal.

  Its unripe pods are pickled and used in curries in some parts of India, but the pods and leaves are fodder for animals, providing a good source of protein. There are prickles on the thin branch stems and care must be taken to avoid them.

  In folk medicine the tree and its parts are used as a heart tonic, astringent and soother of the stomach, and is used for a variety of complaints. In India the flowers mixed with gur are given to prevent miscarriages. The smoke from the leaves is used to relieve eye problems while the bark is said to help concentration, get rid of intestinal worms, help with asthma and bronchitis, dysentery, leucoderma, leprosy and pile among other ailments. The fruit is indigestible, reportedly, and destroys nails and hair and makes people vomit. The pod has astringent properties.

  It has been found that an extract of the bark has antifungal properties, and this is traditionally used for venomous snake and insect bites. The leaves and fruit are used in medicines for nervous disorders. An extract of the roots has been found to have analgesic actions, and the palutibin isolated from the flowers (which look a little like a hairy caterpillar as do those of Grevillea robusta the silk oak) is thought to be cytotoxic, although more research needs to be done on all parts of this tree.

  It also has religious significance as it was used to kindle the sacred fire in Vedic times and Ram is said to have worshipped this tree which represents the goddess of power, before he lead his army to defeat Ravanna.

  In these ways it is of great importance in India and in medicine throughout the range of its natural habitat. In Pakistan it is the symbol of the Province of Sindh as it grows well in the Tahr desert there.

INDIAN OR COUNTRY MALLOW, HERB WITH PAIN-KILLING PROPERTIES: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF INDIAN MALLOW

INDIAN OR COUNTRY MALLOW, ABUTILON INDICUM 

Indian mallow has been used for centuries in traditional medicine systems and is native to the Indian subcontinent from where it has spread, becoming invasive in some Pacific islands. In ancient Sanskrit writings it is called Atibala and has been used to treat a number of illnesses including jaundice, piles, leprosy, headaches, peptic ulcers and gastro-intestinal problems as well as being used as a laxative, aphrodisiac and to increase semen production. It has the reputation of being an aphrodisiac for both genders.

   In some countries it has been cultivated as an ornamental and flowers between June and September. The seeds then ripen until November, and the pod as you can see from the picture, gives it the appearance of a seal so it is called “mudra” in some parts of India. It is a member of the Malvaceae family of plants and so is related to the common mallow and to hibiscus, durian fruit, okra and the red silk cotton tree.  Like the Evening primrose, it opens its flowers in the evening and these may be bright yellow or orange-yellow.

  In previous times the powdered plant was given to prospective brides, mixed with honey and taken once a day for six months before marriage to ensure a quick and safe pregnancy and delivery.

  The leaves are used for bladder infections and gonorrhoea as well as the ailments listed above and as a poultice for piles. It has been found that a petroleum ether extract of the plant can kill mosquito larvae which, is very useful in countries which are stricken with dengue fever such as Pakistan.

  It is said that the plant has rejuvenating properties in that it is a strong tonic for the heart and body. The roots have analgesic properties and in a study Tripathi P. et al. 2011, “Anti-inflammatory activity of Abutilon indicum extract” conclude that the extract used was comparable with the action of “standard ibuprofen” and “The results prove the traditional use of the plant in the treatment of inflammation.” More studies are needed of course to verify the claims.

  This plant has been the subject of various research studies with the leaves being tested in most of them. In The International Journal of Biological and Medical Research, 2011 Vol.2 (4) pp. 908-11 Ganga Suresh P. et al “Evaluation of wound healing activity of “abutilon indicum” Linn in wister albino rats” state “…the petroleum ether extract of “Abutilon indicum” Linn had greater wound healing activity than the ethanol extract.”

    Further studies include that of Dashputre N.L. and Naikwade N. S. 2011, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research “Evaluation of Anti-Ulcer Activity of Methanolic Extract of Abutilon indicum Linn Leaves in Experimental Rats” conclude “the anti-ulcer properties of the extract may be attributed to the presence of phytochemicals like flavonoids (quercetin), alkaloids, and tannins present in the plant extract with various biological activities.” In other words it seems to work but more research is needed to discover how it works.

  Quercetin is found in many pants with good concentrations in red apple skins and is known to have antioxidant properties.

  Dashputre N.L.et al also published research in the International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research in 2010, Vol. 1 (3) “ Immunomodulatory Activity of Abutilon Indicum Linn on Albino Mice” and conclude that the “aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Abutilon indicum leaves may be beneficial in the treatment of impaired immunity.”

  The plant has also shown antifungal and anti-bacterial activity although more research is needed to establish the mechanisms of how it works in the human body. However it is clearly a plant that has some excellent health benefits, which have been shown in traditional medicine systems over thousands of years.

BERGAMOT ORANGES - PRODUCERS OF BERGAMOT OIL: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF BERGAMOT ORANGES

BERGAMOT ORANGE, CITRUS BERGAMIA

Like lemons and oranges, the bergamot orange is a member of the Rutaceae family of plants. It is though to be a hybrid of the Seville orange (bitter orange) and either citron, Citrus medica or the lemon tree, or Citrus limetta, the latter would account for its slight pear shape. It is cultivated for its essential oil found in its peel rather than to eat. It is somewhat confusing because bergamot oil is also the name given to the essential oil obtained from bee balm, Monarda didyma, a member of the mint of Labiateae family, and not related to this citrus fruit.

  It is actually a native of tropical Asia, and appeared in Italy sometime before 1700, where it is now cultivated in Reggio Calabria in southern Italy and to a lesser extent in Sicily. Some say that Christopher Columbus took it to Italy from the Canary Islands. It has been used in Italy in the regions in which it grows, at least since 1725 in folk medicine, to treat tonsillitis, sore throats, respiratory and urinary tract infections. It is also used for oral problems including halitosis and for skin. It aids wound healing too.

  If you have drunk Earl Grey tea or Lady Grey you will have experienced the taste of bergamot oranges as this is what gives Earl Grey in particular its distinctive flavour. It is also used in ice cream, liqueurs and soft drinks.

  Today it is cultivated in Greece in the Vlachata region, the Ivory Coast, Morocco and Iran, but Calabria has the biggest share of the world market. In Greece it is used as a preserve with the peel being boiled in sugar syrup; this is also eaten in Turkey and Cyprus. In Sicily it is used to make marmalade too.

  It is not known if the fruit is actually eaten, although it is nutritious. It is bitter and acidic, more so than a grapefruit, and a little like a bitter orange, which is only used in cooking not eaten raw.

  In aromatherapy the essential oil is used for depression and stress and it is used in the perfume industry although 100 oranges yield only 3 ounces of bergamot oil. This contains two types of flavonoids, flavones and flavanones with the main components being linalool and limonene.

  Research has shown that the oil has antiseptic, and antibacterial properties as well as anti-fungal and antioxidant ones. It may also protect neurons from excitotoxicity according to a report (13^th September 2011) from the European Medicines Agency and research into the oil is ongoing.

  The roots are aromatic and seem to protect neighbouring plants from having their roots attacked by pests, so it is good in gardens as a companion plant. It can be found in sun creams and lotions as it has cooling properties and new research has suggested that it may be of use for sickle cell anaemia sufferers and it could also be cholesterol–lowering and so protect the heart.

  In some Scandinavian countries the peel is used in snuff and in smokeless tobacco, apparently.

 

  

SCARLET BEE BALM - VALUED FOR ESSENTIAL OIL: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF BEE BALM

SCARLET BEE BALM, MONARDA DIDYMA 

There are several plants in the Monarda genus, but this one, didyma is the one used in tisanes for colds, flu, flatulence, menstrual problems, coughs, digestive problems and to combat loss of appetite. It is native to North America but has naturalized in parts of Europe and Asia and flourishes in Pakistan, where the petals are added to milk when butter and lhassi or ayran (a yoghurt drink) are being made. This gives both a distinctive red colour, and doubtless adds interest as well as health benefits. This particular bee balm has the highest concentration of bee balm oil in its leaves.

  This bee balm is sometimes called bergamot, but the oil it yields is not the bergamot oil from the citrus fruit the bergamot orange which is used to flavour Earl Grey tea; that is Citrus bergamia and not to be confused with this herb.

  However bee balm essential oil is used in aromatherapy to reduce stress and calm frazzled nerves. The oil is extracted from the leaves, which when dried are good with lavender in pot pourris. I always associate bee balm with lemon balm probably because in German the plant is called gold Melissa. It is actually a member of the mint family the Labiatae or Lamiaceae which includes peppermint, spearmint, thyme and oregano among other herbs.

  The Native Americans used bee balm as tea, and when the English put a tax on tea (the cause of the Boston tea party) the colonists used bee balm tea or Oswego tea instead of black tea. This was undoubtedly better for their general health as bee balm tisane or tea, prepared with 1 tablespoon of fresh leaves and flowers or 1 teaspoon of dried to one cup of boiling water, steeped for 10 minutes, assists oral hygiene and health and is also good for the health problems mentioned above as well as for mild fever and headaches.

  The plant flowers between June and September and the seeds ripen from August until October. It is best picked when the flowers are blooming and dried for later use, although you can simply harvest the leaves before the flowers bloom.

  As the tisane can stimulate menstruation it is best not used if pregnant and those with thyroid problems should also avoid it. It contains linalool and thymol which is anti-microbial, antibacterial, antifungal and antiseptic.

  The flowers are edible and can be used as garnishes for salads and fruit salad, while the leaves and young shoot tips may also be eaten either cooked or raw. If you add a couple of leaves to China tea, you will get a similar flavour to that of Earl Grey tea. The leaves can also be added as flavouring to jelly and if you put the flowers in it too it will look really attractive and guests will certainly find it a talking point.

  Native Americans used the crushed leaves in poultices to heal wounds and treat some skin problems. Today it is used in attempts to ward off shingles, chicken pox and other diseases.

  It is certainly an attractive herb for a garden and can be grown indoors too although it won’t reach the height of 150 centimetres which it can do outdoors. It has health benefits as well as being attractive and smells good too, although the flowers don’t have a perfume, this comes from the leaves.

  

DEVIL'S HORSEWHIP -PLANT WITH LOTS OF POTENTIAL: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF DEVIL'S HORSEWHIP

DEVIL’S HORSEWHIP, ACHYRANTHES ASPERA 

Devil’s Horsewhip or Prickly (Chaff) Flower has been used since time immemorial in the Indian subcontinent for a number of ailments. It has edible leaves and seeds, and as the plant is an amaranth, like Elephant’s Head or Kang Kong, it can be used as a substitute for spinach which is in the same family. It has been naturalized in southern Europe and grows in East Asia through to Australia.

  The whole plant is used medicinally and is an important medicinal plant in Nepal where it is used for eye complaints including night blindness among other health problems. It is believed to be efficacious due to its triterpenoid saponins which may account for its astringent, diuretic and antispasmodic properties.

  It is widely used for stomach complaints, including diarrhoea and dysentery, as a laxative and purgative as well as an emetic, and the smoke from the burnt plant is inhaled for asthma and coughs. The powdered root and seeds are also burned and inhaled for the same purposes. The seeds taken with milk are said to be good if you want to lose weight; to reduce fat in the organs, the expressed juice of the leaves is mixed and heated in sesame oil and placed on the skin over the parts where fat needs to be removed. This is also used for many skin problems.

   The powdered seeds are mixed with powdered salt and used to whiten the teeth and stop bleeding gums. The stems of the plant may also be used as toothbrushes. With pepper and garlic the leaves, ground to a paste are made into pea sized balls and dried and given to reduce fever, while the crushed leaves mixed into an ointment with ghee are used for piles.

  The seeds may be eaten and are rich in protein, and the plant is a food crop in China. The leaf is sometimes used as a pot herb to flavour dishes.

  The plant contains betaine and achyranthine an alkaloid, along with tannin, glycosides and triterpenoid saponins (mentioned above) and yields essential oil. Scientific studies have found that the plant has anti-inflammatory, analgesic antibiotic, anti-fungal, cholesterol-lowering, immuno-stimulatory, wound healing, and anti-bacterial properties. It also is anti-allergenic, supports the kidneys’ functions, is spermicidal and anti-parasitical.  It also seems to kill mosquito larvae.

   It is used for snake bites and those of poisonous insects and bites from rabid dogs. A decoction of the powdered leaves mixed with honey or gur is given for diarrhoea and dysentery, and the roots are used in the treatment of cancer, bladder stones, and stomach problems. The seeds are used for leprosy and bronchial problems and for the kidneys, and he crushed plant boiled in water is used for pneumonia. The flowering tops or seeds are used for snake bites night blindness and ground into a paste with water for application to skin problems. The root is ground into a paste with water and applied to snake bites, or given internally to produce vomiting.

  Clearly it is a beneficial plant to grow although it is not necessary to cultivate it in the Indian subcontinent as it grows profusely on wasteland. More scientific studies are needed before the medical world accepts the usefulness of this plant, but studies so far have supported many of the traditional uses of this plant.

BABUL TREE - ONE SOURCE OF GUM ARABIC: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF BABUL

BABUL, GUM ARABIC TREE, EGYPTIAN THORN, ACACIA NILOTICA 

The babul tree is a close relative of kikar (Acacia nilotica subspecies indica) and quite prolific in the Punjab region of Pakistan. It is a native of the Indian subcontinent and Egypt going through the African continent to South Africa where it is called lekkerruikpeul or the scented thorn, into the Arabian Peninsula through to Myanmar. It has a fairly slender trunk about 20 – 30 centimetres in diameter and is a slow-growing but reasonable long-lived tree. It is a pioneer species which can regenerate waste land as the seeds with their hard outer husks can germinate within two weeks.

  It is a source of gum Arabic, used as an emulsifier and in the cloth manufacturing industry and in the manufacturing of paper. It is also used in the production of matches, ink and candles. True gum Arabic comes from Acacia Senegal, but the red gum from the babul is of good quality. The gum will exude spontaneously from the trunk for about five weeks, but the process of harvesting it is helped by making incisions into it. The gum from this tree is red while gum Arabic is white. The gum hardens into ‘tears’ the size of a pigeon’s egg.  

  It is thought that this was the burning bush of Moses mentioned in Exodus chapter 3 of the Bible, with the fire supplied by the parasites which feed off it, Loranthus acaciae.

  This tree has many uses; it is a nitrogen fixer and helps make the soil in which it grows fertile, and the twigs and bark are used in Pakistan as tooth brushes. This can also be chewed to prevent vitamin C deficiency and to strengthen teeth and help fix them if they are loose. The inner bark contains tannin and is used for tanning and dyeing in the leather industry. (It dyes leather black.)

  Shamans use the bark to drive away evil spirits and a more mundane use is fodder for livestock which appreciate the leaves and pods. Goats will climb to reach the lower leaves and brave the thorns to get at them. (I have witnessed this.) Because of the thorns it makes a useful live hedge to prevent wild animals getting into fields.

  The flowers contain various flavonoids, among them catechin and quercetin (also found in apples and many other plants) which are currently being investigated as they have potent antioxidant properties so can help prevent healthy cells being damaged by scavenging free-radicals which can cause cancer.

  The wood is used as firewood and charcoal, as well as for boat-building, water pipes and so on, as its sapwood is water resistant. It is also used to make carts and wheel spokes as well as other agricultural implements, and has uses in the construction industry as it is sturdy and durable.

  The various parts of the tree have been used in traditional medicine wherever it is a native, and Dioscorides (c.40-90AD) wrote about it in his “Materia Medica” calling it akakia meaning spiny, which is where the genus Acacia gets its name from.  The ancient Egyptians carved statues and made furniture from it.

  It has astringent properties making it useful for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery and is a standard medication for diarrhoea in Nigeria. In Lebanon the gum mixed with orange-flower water is given to people recovering from typhoid fever. In Pakistan the bark and the bark of the mango tree is used in a decoction for tonsillitis.

  In South Africa the Masai have used Babul for courage and they believe it cures impotence. It is also regarded as an aphrodisiac especially preparations of the pods and flowers, in the Indian subcontinent.

  The leaves can be used in poultices and put on ulcers and wounds to help them heal faster. On the island of Tonga the tree is believed to help diabetics eat anything including sugars and starch, in large quantities.

 The bark has been used to treat gonorrhea and leprosy as well as being made into an infusion as an expectorant to stop coughing. The leaves are used for eye problems while the bark is used for asthma and skin diseases either in a decoction or infusion and sometimes made into an ointment with ghee. The pods are used for urogenital problems, and given in infusions for upset stomachs. The leaves, young shoots and pods are given to animals to increase milk production, so the tree has benefits for us in a variety of ways.

  Studies into the babul tree and its properties indicate that it has antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory properties and can help lower high blood pressure as well as constricting veins. It also has anti-platelet aggregating actions in vitro.

  It would seem that many of the uses of this tree in folk medicine may be proved scientifically in the future.

WATER SOLDIER - NOW RARE IN BRITAIN: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF WATER SOLDIER

WATER SOLDIER, STRATIOTEA ALOIDES 

As its name suggests the water soldier is an aquatic plant in the Hydrocharitaceae family. It has the distinction of being the only one of its genus which is native to the British Isles, although it is debatable as to whether it is a native of County Fermanagh in Northern Ireland where it grows prolifically. In Britain it is no longer as common as it once was, as in the 17^th century Nicholas Culpeper the English herbalist wrote that it grew in the Lincolnshire fens, where it is no longer found. It has also disappeared from Yorkshire and grows in the greatest numbers in East Norfolk. However it is classed as a noxious weed in some states in the US where it is an introduced species, as its native habitat is Europe, extending to Turkey, and Siberia, in Asia.

  Water Soldier is called by this name because Stratiotea comes from the Greek word for soldier, while aloides signifies aloes. It is also known as Crab’s Claws, because of the shape of the leaves when they start to appear above the water.

  It grows to heights of one metre by one metre, and it only rises above the water’s surface when it is ready to flower, after that, by autumn when the seeds ripen it is weighed down by the calcium carbonate in its leaves and the seeds (which rarely appear in Britain) ripen under water in the muddy bottoms of the ponds, fens, marshes and ditches and other waterways which are its habitat. The parent plant sends out trailing buds of leaves at the end of long runners so new plants form, and the seeds ripened also form the basis for new parent plants.

  When the Water soldier has populated water it can takeover and stunt the growth of other aquatic plants. It can completely take over a ditch or small pond, and although the white flowers look attractive in the flowering months of June to August, it can cause havoc with an ecosystem.

  The leaves look like floating pineapple tops or aloe vera plants. Unfortunately the water soldier’s decline in the UK has been attributed to human activity and the increase in the concentration of chemicals found in the plant’s former habitats.

  In the Lodz region of Poland there is a reference to this plant being eaten in times of famine, although this is the only recorded information about its being eaten.

  Culpeper refers to two types of Sengreen which he called this plant, one being rather like a houseleek, he writes. He has this to say of Water Sengreen:

   “It is a plant under the dominion of Venus, and therefore a great strengthener of the reins (kidneys); it is excellent good in that inflammation which is commonly called Saint Anthony’s fire, it assuageth all inflammations and swellings in wounds; and an ointment made of it is excellent good to heal them; there is scarce a better remedy growing than this for such as have bruised their kidneys, and upon that account pissing blood. A drachm of powder of the herb taken every morning, is a good remedy to stop the terms.”

 

 

  

KUSUM, CEYLON OAK, OR MACASSAR OIL TREE: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF SCHLEICHERA OLEOSA

CEYLON OAK, HONEY TREE, INDIAN LAC TREE, KUSUM, SCHLEICHERA OLEOSA 

This tree can grow up to 45 feet although some are even taller and they grow around the foothills of the Himalayas and are native to Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Thailand and its islands and Sri-Lanka and has naturalized on the Indonesian islands particularly on Bali and Java. It is a member of the Sapindaceae family so is a relative of the soapnut tree (reetha), lychee and rambutan trees, the hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa), and many others. Like the dhak tree, or Flame of the Forest tree, it plays host to the lac insect which secretes resin on its bark to protect itself and its offspring, and which is used in varnishes and also has other industrial uses.

  It is generally found in the Indian subcontinent in mixed deciduous forests and in Java it is found in natural teak forests. It is now being considered as a source of biofuel, and has long been used as fodder for cattle. They are fed its leaves and the seed cake which remains after the seeds have had their oil extracted from them. This oil is known as Macassar oil and another name for this tree is the Macassar oil tree. This oil is used in hairdressing and to promote hair growth. The oil can also be used for cooking and lighting, and is used medicinally in traditional medicine systems for skin problems such as acne, itching, and burns. It is used as massage oil to relieve the pain of rheumatism.

  The oil is also added to bath water and perfumes, and on Java it is used in the batik industry. The powdered seeds are used on the wounds and ulcers of cattle to get rid of maggots in them.

  The oil contains oleic, stearic, gadoleic and arachidic acid and the cyanogenic compounds have to be removed for human consumption.

  The bark of the tree has astringent properties and is used in decoctions and infusions for inflamed skin and ulcers, and to protect against malaria. The bark also yields dye and tannin used in the leather industry. It also contains an analgesic compound, lupeol and betulin and betulic acid, both of which are believed to have anti-cancer properties.

  The heartwood of the tree is used for agricultural implements, cartwheels and spokes, in heavy construction work, for boat building, oil presses, ploughs and has a variety of other uses. It is said that the shellac obtained from the lac insects on this tree is superior to other yields on other trees.

  The stem bark is used for menstrual problems and taken in an infusion. The extracts from the tree bark have antioxidant properties and may help in our fight against certain cancers, although research is still ongoing. The triterpenoids which have been extracted from the bark have been shown in one study undertaken by P. Ghosh et al, 2011, Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol.73 (2) pp. 231-33, “Triterpenoids from Schleichera oleosa of Darjeeling foothills and their microbial activity” showed antimicrobial, antifungal and antibacterial activities.

  There have only been a few studies done on this tree, but it seems that it may have many benefits for us including use as biofuel.

DHAK OR FLAME OF THE FOREST TREE-HOST TO LAC INSECTS: HISTORY,USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE DHAK TREE

DHAK TREE, FLAME OF THE FOREST, PARROT TREE, BUTEA MONOSPERMA 

The dhak or flame of the forest tree is a member of the Fabaceae or Leguminoseae (beans and peas) family of plants which include kudzu or pueraria, senna, alfalfa, carob, broom, lupins, chickpeas and peanuts to name just a few. Like the red silk cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) it flowers when the tree is bare of its leaves, so it looks like a flame tree with its bright red blossoms. The tree grows to between 12 and 15 metres high and flowers in the winter months between January and March.

 The site’s administrator remembers a time when he was in a village elementary school in Pakistan and a new teacher came. The leader of the group of children decided that they should all come to school the next day with a petal from the flowers of this tree attached to their little fingers. The schoolteacher didn’t know what the things on their one finger were but the kids explained that it was a custom for them to wear their nails long and red on one finger. He said that in future this would not be acceptable for boys, and told them to go home and cut their nails and remove the red. They turned up after a game of cricket, with no petal attached to their fingers. They had attached them with saliva.

  The flame of the forest tree is host to lac insects (Tachardia lacca) which feed on the tree sap and secrete a resinous substance to protect themselves and their offspring. This is formed on the twigs and branches of certain trees such as Acacia nilotica or babul tree, Zizyphus jujube(a jujube {ber}bearing tree) , Zizyphus xylopyrus, Ficus religiosa or peepal and Schliechera oleosa the macassar oil tree or kusum tree. In the past these trees were cultivated to play host to the lac insect as shellac was in demand as a varnish or lacquer (we get this name from these insects). The flame of the forest tree has been cultivated for such a purpose since at least 250 AD when only a red dye from this insect was of value. By 1590 the resin was more important than the dye.

  The tree is used for medicinal purposes wherever it grows, and its natural habitat is the Indian subcontinent and tropical and sub-tropical south-east Asia. It is also known as Palash, Palah and bastard teak. Its wood is durable under water and is sometimes used in wells and for water scoops. The leaves are woven to make plates, rather as the single banana leaf is used in countries such as Thailand. The flowers are used to make a red colouring used in holi.

  In Hindu legends the tree is said to be the physical embodiment of Agnidev, the God of Fire who was punished by the goddess Parvati for daring to disturb the privacy she was enjoying with Shiva. The flowers are used in ceremonies for the goddess Kali with their red being the symbolic sacrifice instead of a human one. The dry twigs and branches make the sacred fire required in such ceremonies.

  Mosquitoes are attracted to the flowers, and lay eggs that will never hatch in them, and the mosquito also dies, trapped in the flowers’ liquid. The gum from the tree is used in some dishes but is astringent as it contains tannin. It has been used to treat leather and used for its astringent qualities in medicine. Wood from the tree is used for fuel and it also produces good charcoal which is why it is becoming a threatened species in Pakistan.

  The mucilage from the tree is used to treat asthma in traditional medicines systems, while the flowers are used for menstrual problems, to reduce swellings, as a diuretic and aphrodisiac, a tonic and to treat recurring gout and even leprosy. The seeds which are single in pods are used to get rid of internal worms, and the leaves are astringent and used as a tonic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and to get rid of boils and pimples, tumours and piles.

  A decoction of the bark is used for colds and sore throats as a gargle, as well as for coughs, fevers and to promote the menstrual flow. The root of the tree is used in cases of elephantiasis and night blindness while the gum is specifically used for diarrhoea, dysentery and ringworm.  Fresh juice from the tree is used externally on boils and ulcers and internally for sore throats.

  The succulent edible young roots may be eaten raw with salt or roasted or boiled and contain glucose, glycine, glucosides and aromatic compounds while the seeds produce oil. The seeds are pounded with lemon juice and applied to the skin for various problems.

  The seeds may be abortifacient and are may form the basis in coming years of a male contraceptive. The different parts of the tree are still being researched, as the dhak tree may provide us with many health benefits.