EUROPEAN MANDRAKE - SUPERSTITIONS, FOLKLORE AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF MANDRAKE

EUROPEAN MANDRAKE, MANDRAGORA OFFICINARUM 

European mandrake has a long history of uses, as well as superstitions. It was not until the spread of Humanism and the Renaissance that the thinking man began to reject the lore surrounding the mandrake root and stripped bare the uses it might have.

  This mandrake is famous for its root which can be forked, and in the dim and distant past it was thought to be a root which had human forms, and to this end it was shaped into amulets by skillful carvers, to ward off evil spirits and spirit possession as well as to safeguard the owner or wearer from all ills that could possibly befall him or her. Skillful carvers often substituted bryony roots for those of the mandrake and passed them off as such, commanding high prices for the counterfeit goods.

  In the ancient world however mandrake was used for its medicinal properties, with patients in Rome (so we are told by Pliny) chewing on mandrake root prior to undergoing surgery. The root has pain-killing properties and has been used for toothaches and as a sleep inducer for those who were in prolonged pain. Small doses were given to cure depression (melancholy) and mental disturbances, although overdoses actually drove people mad.

  Hildegard von Bingen the abbess who studied herbs and medicine noted that mandrake was responsible for “illusions” while Plato recommended its use as an anesthetic and Aristotle thought it was good to induce sleep. There are cuneiform writings from Assyria, Babylon and Mesopotamia which show it was used in medicine, for a whole variety of ailments including abscesses, ulcers, labour pains, and many more.

  The ancient Egyptians used it as evidenced by its inclusion in the Ebers Papyrus dating back to around 1,700 BC, which is a list of plants and their medical uses. There are pictures of it in King Tutankhamen’s tomb, and it is clear from this evidence that it was held in high regard in ancient Egypt. It is believed to have arrived there from Palestine as mandrake or mandragora as it was known, is native to the Mediterranean, and stretches throughout the Aegean and North Africa as well as being present in the Iberian peninsula.

  Mandrake is a member of the Solanaceae family and so is a relative of Belladonna or deadly nightshade, which also makes it a relative of the tomato and potato both of which were treated with suspicion when first introduced into Europe. Mandrake although a native, had the same reputation in the Middle Ages and earlier, as the Anglo-Saxons certainly believed that it was a magical root. It was said to grow under gallows trees where murderers had been hanged, and if one dug up the root death would surely follow.

Josephus (c. 37 AD – c. 100, Jerusalem) gives the following directions for pulling it up:

“A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this the root can be handled without fear.”

  The root, because it seemed to have human form, although in fact it looks more like a gnarled carrot or parsnip, was said to scream hideously and groan when removed from the soil and anyone who heard the scream would die. If you saw the Harry Potter movies or read the books you will remember that Harry’s classmates were given ear protectors when they had to repot the mandrakes, but of course poor Neville Longbottom passed out. Clearly Ms Rowling had been influenced by the folklore of the mandrake.

   It was supposedly used in witches flying ointment too and given its narcotic properties one can imagine some poor superstitious fool drinking a potion containing mandragora and seeing witches fly.

  The whole plant is said to be poisonous, although reportedly the ripe fruit as well as the leaves are edible. There is little evidence to point to the correct dose of either, however. This is what one of the older British herbalists, Turner had to say about mandragora in his “Nieuwe Herball”

  “Of the apples of mandrake, if a man smell of them they will make hym slepe and also if they be eaten. But they that smell to muche of the apples become dum . . . thys herbe diverse wayes taken is very jepardus for a man and may kill hym if he eat it or drynk it out of measure and have no remedy from it.... If mandragora be taken out of measure, by and by slepe ensueth and a great lousing of the strength with a forgetfulness.”

  The fruit of the mandrake has been called the devil’s apple and indeed, it smells rather like an apple, even though it doesn’t really look like one. It follows the flowers which can be purple or white tinged with purple at the tips of the petals.

 In the ancient world it was reputedly an aphrodisiac and this is its claim to fame in The Bible where it is mentioned in Genesis, when Rachel used it to get Jacob to impregnate her. It is again mentioned in The Song of Songs in the Book of Solomon in the context of love-making. Medicinally it was used to cure sterility.

  It was stated by Plutarch that during the Parthian Wars, Marcus Antonius’ soldiers were poisoned by mandrakes.

  Interestingly it was the English herbalist, John Gerard writing in the 16^th century who appeared to be the first to pour scorn on the alleged magical powers of the mandrake. He wrote that they were “old wives tales” which the (then) modern man would do best to forget.

  The plant contains hyoscine which is used as a pre-operation drug and is also used to prevent travel sickness. It also contains podophyllatoxin which is currently being studied for its effects on cancers and possible use in HIV treatments.

  Ointments were made as well as infusions for use externally to get rid of skin problems such as ulcerous sores. Its leaves have cooling properties and have been employed in poultices having first been boiled in milk and placed on the skin to get rid of ulcerous sores. The root was finely scraped and pounded to a pulp then put into brandy and drunk as a cure for rheumatism. It tastes foul and has to have its flavour masked.

  It can be steeped in wine for a week with cinnamon sticks and lots of saffron and sweetened with royal jelly and honey, although with those ingredients, it would be curious as to which was most effective against any disease. I think this is an ancient remedy which has had a resurgence in popularity as people look for different psychotropic experiences.

COMMON SUNDEW - INSECTIVOROUS PLANT WITH HEALTH BENEFITS: HISTORY, USES AND MEDICINAL BENEFITS OF SUNDEW

COMMON SUNDEW, ROUND-LEAF SUNDEW, DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA

 The Common sundew is an evergreen, insectivorous, (or carnivorous) plant which is native to parts of Europe including Britain but not the Mediterranean, North America and northern Asia. It is a semi-aquatic plant, preferring to grow in moist if not wet places such as on the edges of ponds. Its main claim to fame is that Charles Darwin devoted the first chapter of his book “Insectivorous Plants” published in 1875 to the common sundew. It is one of three members of the Droseraceae family found in Britain.

    It used to have some reputation as an aphrodisiac, especially when in the cordial made by distilling the plant, which was called Rosa solis or rosolio which is thought to have first been concocted in Turin during the Renaissance. It was a golden cordial which was flavoured with cinnamon, ginger and cloves, the ‘hot’ spices believed then to have aphrodisiac qualities. It also contained grains of paradise, and red rose leaves and some of the wealthier imbibers also put gold leaf, powdered pearls and coral into it as well as musk, amber and ambergris. Culpepper writing long after it had (probably) ceased to be fashionable seems quite scathing of the cordial made from it as you can see from this extract from his Complete Herbal. It seems that Rosa solis washed down the kissing comfits made from sea holly or eryngo.

“Government and virtues. The Sun rules it, and it is under the sign Cancer. Some authors gravely tell us that a water distilled from this plant is highly cordial and restorative; but it is more than probable that it never deserved the character given of it in that respect. The leaves, bruised and applied to the skin, erode it, and bring on such inflammations as are not easily removed. The ladies in some parts mix the juice with milk, as to make an innocent and safe application for the removal of freckles, sun-burn, and other discolourings of the skin. The juice, unmixed, will destroy warts and corns, if a little of it be frequently put upon them. These are effects which pronounce its internal use to be dangerous; and if it is not productive of bad consequences, when distilled with other ingredients, for cordial waters, &c, it is because its pernicious qualities are not of a nature to rise in distillation.”

  While it is clear that Culpeper didn’t think very highly of this plant, in homeopathy it is used for respiratory problems and it has antispasmodic properties which relieve wheezing and chronic bronchitis. It has also been found to have antibacterial properties and the plant is at its most beneficial medicinally when it is in flower. It is best to harvest it just as it begins to bloom in summer. It lies dormant in winter but in spring is quick to trap an insect with its red hairs which are on the leaf, and then it slowly digests the captured insect with its enzymes which are secreted at the tip of its hairs.

   The plant contains a natural antibiotic, plumbagin, which kills a number of pathogens and it has antifungal properties too. At one time it was regarded as a cure for old age in the USA, perhaps because a vegetable extract from the plant was used to treat arteriosclerosis with colloidal silicates. Now it is believed that it can help to reduce the amount of sugar in the blood.

  The juice from the plant has been used to curdle soya milk in the cheese-making process. This is useful if you are a vegetarian. However, the plant is now much rarer than it was in the past, so don’t harvest it from the wild. You can buy seeds and propagate the sundew at home in wet peat, and this will delight children who have a fascination for insectivorous plants.

GUAIACUM OFFICINALE - PRODUCER OF LIGNUM VITAE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF GUAIACUM OFFICINALE

I

GUAIACUM OFFICINALE, LIGNUM VITAE  

The flower of this tree is the national flower of Jamaica, as it is a native tree of the West Indies and the North coast of South America. Its range stretches from the Florida Keys through to Venezuela, Honduras and Panama. The Spanish explorers came across this tree in the 16^th century in the Bahamas and adopted its name from one of the indigenous languages. It is an evergreen member of the Zygophyllaceae family and grows to around 60 feet tall. It was valued for its wood which is extremely hard and durable; it is so heavy that it sinks if put in water. It has been used for construction and to make small intricate parts of grandfather clocks and precision instruments, because of its longevity.

  Lignum vitae means living wood and it is known in the West Indies as the Tree of Life. Unfortunately it was the victim of deforestation as land was cleared for sugar cane plantations; it was placed on the IUCN red list of endangered species in 1998 and despite planting new trees, it has not been removed from the list.

  Its resin, which exudes in tear-shaped is valued in traditional medicine rather like myrrh and other tree resins. This resin contains vanillin, the polytriterpenoids guaiaguttin, and the resin acids, guaiaconic, guaianetic and guacic acids along with saponins. It has been used as a laxative, diuretic and to promote sweat in fevers.

  It has been traded as a commodity since 1508 and it was much used in Europe by medical practitioners who used it to treat syphilis along with the sassafras tree and sarsaparilla. It was introduced from the West Indies into the Asian subcontinent.

  Whether or not the tree can help cure syphilis and other STDs was not questioned until the 18^th century, and it is still open to some doubt. The wood used to be used for such ailments, even sawdust and shavings were incorporated into remedies. Now however, only the resin is used.

  This resin is believed to have anti-inflammatory properties and is used for rheumatism, arthritis and gout. When this comes from the tree it is a red-brown whi9ch changes to a blue-green hue when it is exposed to oxygen, and this is used for staining and if applied to a sore tooth is said to relieve toothache. If applied externally it is used for the pains of rheumatism and so on. Taken internally it is said to lower blood pressure and to relieve gout and arteriosclerosis. It is also valued when it is made into a wash or lotion for skin diseases.

  It is an endangered species, and there are many other plants that can be used to treat skin diseases and other ailments, so its best to avoid using this tree until, at least, it is off the endangered species list.

APPLES - ONE A DAY MAY REALLY KEEP THE DOCTOR AWAY: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF APPLES

APPLES

Apple trees are members of the Rosaceae family of plants so are related to the rose, apricots, plums, peaches, almonds and so on. They can be green, yellow, red and brown, with the tartest ones having green skin. I remember the cooking apples that grew in our garden and the taste of homemade apple pies. They were a definite green, and not like that of Granny Smith’s. I particularly like the brown russet apples that my great aunt always seemed to have a supply of, but I haven’t seen any of these for years. They were a chestnut brown and slightly rough resembling a kiwi a little.

  Apples have a very long history and it is believed that dessert apples began to spread from the forests of eastern Kazakhstan around 8,000 BC as our hunter-gathering ancestors moved around the globe. Apples are mentioned in ancient mythology, and there was a magic apple in Norse myths which gave eternal youth to the person who ate it. The Gardens of the Hesperides contained apple trees and although it is not specifically stated we have believed for centuries that it was the apple which led to our fall from Paradise when Eve tempted Adam, having herself been the victim of the serpent. For centuries apples have been associated with seduction and the fall from grace.

  Dried apples were found in Queen Pu-Abi’s tomb at Ur (near modern Basra in southern Iraq), and dated to around 2,500 BC. A Chinese diplomat, Feng Li gave up his prestigious position in order to graft fruit trees, peaches, almonds, persimmons, pears and apples, to trade them much to the horror of his royal colleagues, so great was his passion for fruit; this was in 5,000BC. Later Homer mentions orchards of apples and pears in his “Odyssey” (C.800 BC) and describes King Tantalus, being tantalized by sweet figs, pomegranates, pears, apples and juicy olives which were just out of his reach. In 332 BC Theophrastus states that there were 6 varieties of apple trees, and in 100 BC the Roman poet Horace said that Italy was almost one big orchard, claiming that the perfect meal began with eggs and ended with apples. In 50 BC the Roman orator and statesman, Cicero urged Romans to save the seeds from their apples so that new cultivars could be developed. Presumably they did this as in 79 AD or thereabouts, Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History that there were 20 varieties of apple. In 200 AD Galen the physician, was singing the praises of the sweet apple as an aid to digestion and the sour one for fainting and constipation. It was in 1904 that J. T. Stinson proclaimed to a Saint Louis Symposium that “an apple a day keep the doctor away.” However it took researchers until 2000 to discover powerful new antioxidants in apples when the University of California announced the results of research undertaken there.

  Apples contain phytonutrients which combined with the relatively small amount of fibre they contain work to help prevent spikes in blood sugar levels. The polyphenols in apples help to promote the secretion of insulin in the pancreas and increase the absorption of glucose from the blood. The constituents in apples lower blood fats when the apple is eaten whole that means including the skin. The apple’s skin contains most of the phytonutrients with red apple skin having anthocyanins and yellow ones carotene. Apples work to balance the bacteria in the digestive tract and research is ongoing into this activity.

  Research has shown that eating whole apples can help prevent or delay age-related macular degeneration (eye disease) as well as help to prevent lung cancer and asthma, although research is ongoing into the effects apples have on asthma symptoms. It is believed that the bioflavonoid phloridizin in apples may prevent bone loss and so help with osteoporosis. Apples can also help prevent neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, so perhaps an apple a day may really keep the doctor at bay, if not away.

  One bad apple really can damage the whole lot, as when an apple is bruised it releases relatively high amounts of the gas, ethylene which contaminates all the other apples, so remove any decaying apples from storage.

  Apples contain some vitamin C, some of the B-complex vitamins including B1, 2 and 3 as well as B6, vitamins E and K and folate. As for minerals they include calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, potassium and a little sodium. They also have Omega-3 and -5 fatty acids along with amino acids and lutein, zeaxanthin and choline.

  Apples have found a place in Cockney rhyming slang, with “apples and pears” meaning “stairs”, which illustrates how common apples are. There other expressions which show the value we have placed on apples, with one being “the apple of one’s eye” meaning something or someone who is thought very dear and valuable perhaps someone who can do no wrong.

   Apples have captured the imagination of poets since Homer’s time and Robert Frost wrote several poems about apple orchards and apple picking which are very vivid and illustrative.

  You can cook apples, as in apple pie, which is a favourite dish on both sides of the Atlantic. Apples can be made into jam and preserves, pickled and made into cider. They can be served with meat (apple sauce with goose or pork) and can be put into fruit salads and on breakfast cereals as well as being good with natural yoghurt and honey along with other fresh fruit and nuts such as walnuts. Personally I like to eat whole apples and these are much better both nutritionally and health-wise for you than having applesauce or apple juice. This is mainly because most of the health-giving properties of an apple are contained in their skins.