EUROPEAN OR WHITE WILLOW-ORIGINAL SOURCE OF ASPIRIN: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE WHITE WILLOW

WHITE WILLOW, EUROPEAN WILLOW, SALIX ALBA 

The white willow is native to Europe including Britain and to Asia and some parts of North America, although it has mainly naturalized there, and in Connecticut it is considered an invasive species. There are many hybrids of this willow and others, for example the black or pussy willow, Salix nigra, the purple willow, Salix purpurea and the crack willow, Salix fragilis. It grows close to canals, lakes, in fenland, marshes and damp woodland and has been used for a variety of purposes throughout the centuries.

  The white willow is famous as the original source of salicin used for aspirin, and the story goes that this was discovered by the Reverend Edmund Stone of Chipping Norton in the Cotswolds, Oxfordshire in 1763, although there are many other claims too.

  Hippocrates (circa 400 BC) recommended willow bark to be chewed to reduce fevers and inflammation, and it has been used in traditional Chinese and European medicine for many centuries. It seems that the effect of the fresh or dried bark takes longer to kick in than aspirin, but the effects last longer.

  Nicholas Culpeper writing in the 17^th century, (before the reverend Stone’s “discovery”)

Has this to say about the medicinal properties of the white willow: -

“Government and virtues. The Moon owns it. Both the leaves, bark, and the seed, are used to stanch bleeding of wounds, and at mouth and nose, spitting of blood, and other fluxes of blood in man or woman, and to stay vomiting, and provocation thereunto, if the decoction of them in wine be drank. It helps also to stay thin, hot, sharp, salt distillations from the head upon the lungs, causing a consumption. The leaves bruised with some pepper, and drank in wine, helps much the wind cholic. The leaves bruised and boiled in wine, and drank, stays the heat of lust in man or woman, and quite extinguishes it, if it be long used. The seed also is of the same effect. Water that is gathered from the Willow, when it flowers, the bark being slit, and a vessel fitting to receive it, is very good for redness and dimness of sight, or films that grow over the eyes, and stay the rheums that fall into them; to provoke urine, being stopped, if it be drank; to clear the face and skin from spots and discolourings. Galen says, the flowers have an admirable faculty in drying up humours, being a medicine without any sharpness or corrosion; you may boil them in white wine, and drink as much as you will, so you drink not yourself drunk. The bark works the same effect, if used in the same manner, and the tree hath always a bark upon it, though not always flowers; the burnt ashes of the bark being mixed with vinegar, takes away warts, corns, and superfluous flesh, being applied to the place. The decoction of the leaves or bark in wine, takes away scurff and dandrif by washing the place with it. It is a fine cool tree, the boughs of which are very convenient to be placed in the chamber of one sick of a fever.”

  This is the wisdom of the 17^th century, but be careful not to overdose on it if you want to retain your libido (just in case)!

  Other compounds apart from salicin have been identified in the bark, including some with antiseptic, immune-boosting, fever reducing and antioxidant properties. Salicin reduces inflammation and eases pain. The effects of the bark therefore may not be simply due to the salicin compound.

  Traditionally the bark of the white willow has been used to treat inflammation associated with gout, and given to asthma and diabetes patients, and for headaches. However conventional medicine practitioners do not agree with these treatments and suggest that it should not be used either for gout or asthma and neither should it be used by people suffering from haemophilia, gastritis, or stomach ulcers, or breastfeeding mothers and pregnant women. It should not be given t children under the age of 16.

  The dosage for adults is 1-2 teaspoons of the dried bark infused in 8 fluid ounces of water for 30 minutes, then strained; 3-4 cups of this can be drunk daily. This is to relieve inflammatory pain and headaches. It may also be used to reduce fevers.

  The decoction of the bark is very bitter and astringent because of the tannin content and may be used for diarrhoea and dysentery as well as to get rid of intestinal worms. The bark is best harvested from branches that are between 3 and 6 years old.

  An infusion of the leaves, which can be collected at any time during the growing season of spring through to early autumn, can be made for a calming effect and nervous insomnia, although it tastes very bitter and needs to be flavoured with honey or sugar.

  The leaves may also be added to hot bath water to ease the symptoms of rheumatism. They can be used fresh or dried.

  The bark sold in Europe is usually a mixture of the purple willow, the crack willow and the white willow.

  The tree is also used to make paper, and a variant is used in Britain to make cricket bats. Other uses include basket making with the young osiers and charcoal making (the charcoal has also been used medicinally). The wood from Salix alba is light but used for small items such as tool handles.

  This is called the white willow because the undersides of its leaves are silvery white, and when the sun shines on them when there is a breeze, the tree has a shimmering silvery sheen. The leaves are edible as are the young shoots but taste very unpleasant, as does the powder made from the inner bark which can be ground to flour and used for making bread in times of scarcity. It is a fast growing tree, but is not very long-lived, mainly because it is susceptible to a variety of pests and diseases.

  It is a beautiful tree, with catkins in spring, and I have always liked this tree as I thought, because of its silvery sheen that it must have been inhabited by faeries.

   

AVENS -"A WHOLESOME, HEALTHFUL HERB": HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF AVENS

AVENS, HERB BENNET, COLEWORT, GEUM URBANUM 

Avens or wood avens, Geum urbanum is a close relative of the water avens or Indian chocolate (Geum rivale) and a member of the Rosaceae or rose family, making it a relative of the dog rose. As a member of this family it is a distant relative of apricots, apples, plums, loquats, peaches and the blackthorn tree from which we get sloes. It is closely related to the Potentilla genus, so is related to silverweed and cinquefoil, which its yellow flowers resemble.

  The avens is native to Britain and mainland Europe as well as to Central Asia. Its root when freshly dug has a strong smell of cloves, and this is the reason for its genus name Geum, which basically means something with a fragrant aroma. The name urbanum means of the city, or perhaps sophisticated.

  It was believed that the root was best gathered in Britain on the 25^th of March as long as the soil was not wet. This was the time the root was believed to be at its most pungent. It has been used in medicine as well as in cooking; both in sweets and desserts, and the seeds may be substituted for cloves in an apple tart. The young leaves may be eaten raw in salads or cooked, and the root may be used to flavour soups and stews.

  The root is the part generally used in medicine: ½ ounce of root chopped to one pint of boiling water can be infused and then strained and the liquid drunk cold, or the decoction can be made by boiling the root and reducing the amount of water to ½ a pint. This can be used externally for skin problems, and for vaginal discharge, as an antiseptic and wound healer and internally for stomach problems, to soothe the mucous membranes in bronchitis and coughs, for sore throats and headaches, as a drink to reduce fevers, and as a general spring tonic, which was believed to clear obstructions in the liver and cleanse the blood and body.

  The root contains tannin and so it is useful as an astringent for diarrhoea and dysentery as well as for wound healing.

  Nicholas Culpeper the English herbalist writing in the 17^th century wrote about it in this way: -

“Government and virtues. It is governed by Jupiter, and that gives hopes of a wholesome healthful herb. It is good for the diseases of the chest or breast, for pains, and stiches in the side, and to expel crude and raw humours from the belly and stomach, by the sweet savour and warming quality. It dissolves the inward congealed blood happening by falls or bruises, and the spitting of blood, if the roots, either green or dry, be boiled in wine and drank; as also all manner of inward wounds or outward, if washed or bathed therewith. The decoction also being drank, comforts the heart, and strengtheneth the stomach and a cold brain, and therefore is good in the spring-time to open obstructions of the liver, and helps the wind cholic; it also helps those that have fluxes, or are bursten, or have a rupture; it taketh away spots or marks in the face, being washed therewith. The juice of the fresh root, or powder of the dried root, hath the same effect with the decoction. The root in the spring time steeped in wine, give it delicate savour and taste, and being drank fasting every morning, comforteth the heart, and is a good preservative against the plague, or any other poison. It helpeth digestion, and warmeth a cold stomach, and openeth obstructions of the liver and spleen.”

He concluded his description with this: “It is very safe; you need have no dose prescribed; and is very fit to be kept in every body's house.”

  It was used to flavour Augsburg Ale to impart both its flavour and its health-giving properties, with a sachet of the root being placed in each cask of ale. In the Middle Ages it used to be worn as an amulet to ward off evil spirits and venomous beasts, as it was regarded as a sacred herb, belonging to Saint Benedict, hence the name Herb Bennet (a corruption of Benedict).

  The trefoil leaf of this plant with its golden, five petalled flower was a symbol of the Holy Trinity (trefoil leaf) while the five petals symbolized the five wounds inflicted upon the crucified Jesus. By the end of the 13^th century in Britain, this was a motif used in the architecture of churches and it could be found on walls and columns.

  (Hemlock is also called Herb Bennet and should not be confused with this. Legend has it that a monk gave Saint Benedict a cup of wine poisoned by hemlock, but when Saint Benedict blessed the wine before drinking it, the poison, which was a kind of devil, fled the cup with such force that it shattered, thus exposing the cup-bearing monk’s intent to kill Saint Benedict.)

  So far there is no scientific evidence to support the traditional medicinal uses of avens, or Herb Bennet.

BEEFWOOD TREE,COAST SHE-OAK: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF BEEFWOOD

BEEFWOOD, AGOHO, CASUARINA EQUISETIFOLIA

The beefwood tree goes by a number of names in English, including the horsetail tree as its branches, with their drooping leaves resemble a horse’s tail and also the horsetail fern. It is also known as the She-oak or Coast She-oak, Ironwood, Australian beefwood or Australian pine, and the whistling pine. Its needle–like leaves resemble pine needles and it bears cone-like fruit with small, winged seeds and it looks a little like a pine tree. It is also an evergreen with a pyramid shaped crown which can grow to heights of 30 metres.

  The name Casuarina is believed to come from the Malay word kasuari from which we get the name for the bird, the cassowary, and it is called this as it resembles the bird’s plumage; equestifolia means horse-leaved. It is a member of the Casuarinaceae family of plants. The tree is actually native to Malaysia, South Asia, Australia and Oceania, although it has been planted around the world for its protection from the sea, and because it is a nitrogen fixer and helps make land more fertile.

  You can see this tree along coasts in North Africa, and Florida in the US where it is now an invasive species, having first been introduced in the 1800s when it was planted to stabilize ditches and canals and for its shade and timber. It is sometimes used as a nurse plant in coconut groves, and even for pine trees. In India lemon, orange and other citrus trees grow larger than they would usually do when they are grown under the protection of the Beefwood tree.

  The tree has a multitude of uses: in Thailand its timber is used for poles to make fish traps, and it is used for firewood around the globe, as it burns well even when freshly cut and yields high quality charcoal. It is valued in the leather industry in Madagascar for its tannin and is used for fences (with the trees coppiced, providing live fences and the cut timber also being utilized for the same purpose). It is also used for boat-building, for electricity poles, handles for implements and tools, for cart wheels and also the bark is a dye producer.

  It can be annoying as the leaf litter under trees deters wild life and so it can damage eco-systems where it has been cultivated. However it is used in folk medicine for a number of ailments, and has astringent properties (due to its tannin content), is used for menstrual irregularities, colic and stomach pains, headaches and more.

  In the Philippines a decoction of the bark is used to remedy diarrhoea and dysentery, and to promote menstruation, and in large doses it is used as a pain-killer. The liquid after boiling the bark is used as a lotion for beriberi (vitamin B1 deficiency) and the powdered bark is made into a paste with water and applied to pimples, acne and other skin eruptions. An infusion of the bark is prescribed as a general tonic. A decoction of the twigs is made into a lotion for inflammatory swellings, while an infusion of the branches is used as a diuretic. The leaves are used in decoctions and infusions for colic and other stomach upsets and to stop spasms.

  The leaf litter can be used to start and feed fires, and the wood pulp can be used to make paper and the timber being resistant to some termites makes it useful in tropical countries.

ALEXANDERS OR BLACK LOVAGE: HISTORY, HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF ALEXANDERS

ALEXANDERS, BLACK LOVAGE, SMYRNIUM OLUSATRUS 

Alexanders looks a lot like angelica, and is related to it as it is a member of the Apiaceae or Umbelliferae family. As such it is related to fennel, dill, sweet Cicely, cow parsley, lovage, carrots, caraway, anise, lesser and greater burnet saxifrage, water fennel or water dropwort and Thapsia to which it bears a strong resemblance with its yellow- green flowers. It originated in Europe and Asia and has naturalized in Britain where it was grown in monastery gardens in the Middle Ages as a pot-herb and vegetable.

  It tastes a little like celery and the leaves are similar to those of this plant. The seeds are used as a condiment and all parts of the plant are edible. The flowering tops can be eaten and cooked like broccoli for which it can be a substitute. The unopened flower buds can be pickled and when this is done they look like mini-cauliflowers. The leaves and young shoots may be eaten raw in salads or cooked and added to soups or stews, which is what the Romans used them for. It is said that they introduced this plant to Britain as they enjoyed the “myrrh” taste they thought these imparted to soups.

  The stems can also be cooked like asparagus, steamed or boiled for 5 to 10 minutes, and served as a side dish. The plant grows in autumn and has leaves throughout the winter, so was a useful source of nourishment. It is said that if the root is left in a cool place over winter it becomes tender and is good in soups and stews. The stems are a little more pungent than celery and the seeds are peppery. The flower buds may be eaten raw in salads too.

  In the past Alexanders was used to treat asthma, menstrual problems and wounds, but generally it is not used today, although there would seem to be no reason not to as it is not poisonous as plants such as aconite, thornapple (datura) and aak are.

  Nicholas Culpeper, writing in the 17^th century has this to say about it:-

“Government and virtues. This plant is under Jupiter, therefore friendly to nature. The whole plant has a strong warm taste, and was more used in the kitchen than in the medicinal way, having been either eaten raw, as a sallad among other herbs, or else boiled and eaten with salt meat, or in broths in the spring season. The root pickled was deemed a good sauce, but its use in the kitchen has been entirely superseded by the cultivation of celery. It is reckoned to be of the nature of parsley or smallage, but stronger, and therefore may be serviceable in opening obstructions of the liver and spleen, provoking wind and urine, and consequently good in the dropsy or stranguary. For this purpose, half a drachm of the seeds powdered, and taken in white wine, every morning, is seldom known to fail. It is likewise good for bringing on the courses, and expelling the after-birth, notwithstanding it is seldom used in medicine.”

  It is known as black lovage because of the colour of the root and seeds, which are almost black when ripe. It flowers in Britain in April and May and the whole plant was once used in a decoction as a diuretic.

  Writing in 1640, Parkinson says that it was eaten during Lent to aid digestion and to digest “the viscous humours in the stomache.” Lenten pottage is an old Irish recipe which was eaten during Lent and which comprised nettles, watercress and Alexanders. Nowadays the seeds are crushed and added to vodka to give it some more oomph.

  It used to be called the herb of Macedonia, where Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great’s father had ruled. It could be that this is why it was called Alexander’s herb, although some sources claim that the Alexander in question was actually Alexandria. (It is sometimes called Alexander’s parsley.)

  Alexanders is the centre of some research into the sesquiterpenoids all parts of the plant yield in their essential oil (2010 Papaioannou, F. et al).  Sesquiterpene lactones from the plant have also been investigated in a study published in 2001 for their ability in vitro and in mice to kill cancer cells. More research needs to be done on this plant to discover what medicinal benefits it has for us.