KAPOK TREE - SAVED FROM BEING ENDANGERED BY MAN-MADE STUFFING: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE KAPOK TREE

KAPOK TREE, CEIBA PENTANDRA 

The kapok tree towers over the others in its native rainforests in South America and has made its way to West Africa where it has established itself. It is thought that the seeds floated between the continents of South America and Africa. In other parts of the world’s tropics, this tree has been planted as in the 1940s the kapok it produces was in demand for stuffing soft furnishings, car seats and life preservers. Now synthetic materials are used and perhaps this has saved the Ceiba pentandra from near extinction. However it is in danger in Costa Rica where it is felled to make pallets.

  Luckily the wood is not highly prized in the West but is used by people where it grows for coffins, dugout canoes and carvings. The kapok is the silky fine hairs which are attached to the seeds which grow in fruit after the white or perhaps pink flowers have fallen.

  This tree used to belong to the Bombacaceae family but it has been moved to the Malvaceae family. It is related to Bombax ceiba, the red silk cotton tree, which also produces kapok, as well as to the dinner plate tree, hollyhocks, the musk mallow, common mallow, Indian or country mallow, marsh mallow, hibiscus, durian fruit and okra to name but a few of its relatives.

  In the rainforest it gives home and shelter to the bromeliads, frogs, birds and insects which find the nooks and crannies in its trunk very inviting. The flowers have a particularly unpleasant pungent odour which attracts the bats which are believed to pollinate it. The seeds in the fruit are oil-producers and this can be made into soap.

  The kapok tree has its medicinal uses too and these vary depending on where it grows, In Samoa the bark is used for asthma, while in the Philippines where trees were planted, the bark is regarded as useful for fever, as a diuretic, for diarrhoea and as a purgative. It is also applied to swollen fingers and wounds, while an infusion is used as mouthwash.

  A decoction of the flowers is given for constipation and an infusion of the leaves is used for coughs, hoarseness, catarrh and uterine discharge. The tender young leaves are used for gonorrhoea, as are the tender tap roots, which are also used in cases of dysentery. The unripe fruit is demulcent, emollient and astringent so useful to soothe the mucous membrane in cases of bronchitis and so on. A decoction of the roots is given for diarrhoea and chronic dysentery while the gum from the bark is astringent and styptic so good for wound healing. It is sometimes given in milk to children who have diarrhoea or who are incontinent.

  Clinical studies have shown that the stem bark has liver protective properties and the tree has antioxidant properties, (leaves and stem bark) while root extracts have been found to have anti-diabetic properties.

  This tree may have lost its raison d’être as far as  kapok for stuffing  goes, but it could have many health benefits for us.

SAVOY CABBAGE - THE KING CABBAGE: HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES: RECIPE - STIR-FRIED SAVOY CABBAGE WITH CASHEW NUTS

SAVOY CABBAGE, BRASSICA OLEOROSA (capitata var. saboude L.) 

The green cabbages are all descendants of a wild leafy cabbage which was cultivated so that it became a head (capitata) cabbage. It is believed that the Savoy cabbage was developed in the Savoy region in the 15^th century, which at the time encompassed parts of France, Italy and Switzerland. It is the crinkly-leaved cabbage which, like the red cabbage has unique health benefits if steamed or lightly sautéed. The savoy cabbage is closely related to the other members of the Brassicaceae or Cruciferae family which include broccoli, kale, kohlrabi, brussel sprouts and collard or spring greens.

  Cabbages may have come from China via Egypt into Europe, although they more likely were indigenous to the Mediterranean region and Greece, as there are wild mustard plants that grow near the sea which could have been ancestors. They were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who used them for both food and medicine as it was believed that cabbage could promote milk-flow in lactating women. However they were also regarded as a nuisance and not grown near grape vines as they were thought to impart their flavour to the vines and so spoil the wine. Nowadays, they are disliked by children because of their taste, but this can be disguised by trying our recipe below.

 You can also substitute steamed cabbage leaves for vine leaves as in our dolmades recipe.

  The cabbage was a staple food for European peasants between the 14^th and 19^th centuries, along with heavy dark bread. It is a winter vegetable and the Dutch and Germans fermented it and made sauerkraut which was eaten by Dutch sailors to prevent scurvy on the voyages of discovery to what is now Indonesia. Cabbage was introduced to North America by the early German settlers who also gave the continent sauerkraut.

  Writing his herbal in the 17^th century, had this to say of cabbages (‘coleworts’ include cabbage and cauliflower)

“Government and virtues. The cabbage or coleworts boiled gently in broth, and eaten, do open the body, but the second decoction doth bind the body: the juice thereof drunk in wine, helpeth those that are bitten by an adder; and the decoction of the flowers bringeth down women's courses. Being taken with honey, it recovereth hoarseness or loss of the voice: the often eating of them, well boiled, helpeth those that are entering into a consumption: the pulp of the middle ribs of colewort, boiled in almond milk, and made up into an electuary with honey, being taken often, is very profitable for those that are pursy or short-winded; being boiled twice and an old cock boiled in the broth, and drunk, helpeth the pains and the obstructions of the liver and spleen, and the stone in the kidneys; the juice boiled with honey, and dropped into the corner of the eyes, cleareth the sight, by consuming any film or cloud beginning to dim it; it also consumeth the canker growing therein. They are much commended being eaten before meat to keep one from surfeiting, as also from being drunk with too much wine, and quickly make a drunken man sober; for as they say, there is such an antipathy or enmity between the vine and the colewort, that the one will die where the other groweth. The decoction of coleworts taketh away the pains and achs, and allayeth the swellings of swoln or gouty legs and knees wherein many gross and watery humours are fallen, the place being bathed therewith warm: it helpeth also old and filthy sores being bathed therewith, and healeth all small scabs, pushes, and wheals, that break out in the skin; the ashes of colewort-stalk, mixed with old hog's-grease, are very effectual to anoint the sides of those that have had long pains therein, or any other place pained with melancholy and windy humours. Cabbages are extreme windy, whether you take them as meat or as medicine: but colewort-flowers are something more tolerable, and the wholesomer food of the two. The Moon challengeth the dominion of the herb.”

  The savoy cabbage has been shown to have unique health benefits, but only if steamed lightly or sautéed lightly. It is a good source of sinigrin which has been the subject of cancer research. The sinigrin found in cabbages converts in the body to allylisothiocyanate (AITC) a compound which has been found to have cancer-protective properties, particularly against bladder, colon and prostate cancers. However if you cook cabbage by long boiling it looses these health-giving properties.

  Savoy cabbage and other green cabbages have potent antioxidant properties perhaps due to the polyphenol compounds found in them. They are very nutritious containing vitamins A, C, E and K, and the B-complex vitamins, including thiamin (B1) and niacin (B2). They also contain the following minerals: apart from molybdenum they also contain calcium, a little copper, iron, potassium, zinc, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, selenium and sodium and they also have all the amino acids as well as lutein and zeaxanthin, and choline. The amino acid, glutamine, is known to have anti-inflammatory properties, so as Culpeper says, could indeed take away the “pains and achs, and allayeth the swellings of swoln or gouty legs and knees.” Another constituent of the savoy cabbage, indol-3-carbinol, boosts DNA repair in the cells and appears to block the growth of cancerous cells.

  In Eastern Europe, cabbage is frequently cooked with juniper berries (4 is sufficient for four people) or caraway seeds (1 teaspoon for four people). However cabbage is usually boiled to death and so the nutrients and health-giving substances are lost. The best way of using a cabbage is to shred or chop it and then let it rest for 5 minutes before steaming or lightly sautéing it.

  Why not try this recipe for stir-fried savoy cabbage served on a bed of brown rice mixed with wild rice?

STIR-FRIED SAVOY CABBAGE AND CASHEW NUTS

Ingredients

¾ pound of savoy cabbage, shredded and left to settle for 5 minutes before frying

1 medium onion, finely chopped

3 garlic cloves, finely chopped

3 ounces cashew nuts (unsalted)

1 red pepper, finely diced

 ½ tsp chilli powder

1 tsp cumin seeds

freshly ground black pepper and salt to taste

1 tbsp sesame oil

3 tbsps olive oil

2 tbsps sunflower oil

METHOD

Heat the oils and add the onion and garlic, and fry until the onion is a pale golden colour.

Add the red pepper, spices, cashew nuts and cabbage and stir-fry for 5 minutes.

When the cabbage is wilted a little it is ready.

Serve on a bed of rice as suggested above.

This has Taste and is a Treat.

WOLFSBANE - ONE OF THE ACONITES: HISTORY AND USES OF NORTHERN WOLFSBANE

(NORTHERN) WOLFSBANE, ACONITUM LYCOCTONUM 

The northern wolfsbane is native to Europe and western Asia and is a member of the buttercup or Ranunculaceae family of plants. As such it is related to the Lesser Celandine, marsh marigolds, black cohosh, wood anemones and goldenseal. Wolfsbane was known to the ancients, and Pliny the Elder has a few suggestions about how it got the name Aconitum. His first suggestion is that it comes from the “port of Aconae, of evil repute for the poison called aconite” but the he says the word might be a reference to the rocky crags on which it grew which were barren. He further says that perhaps it came from the word akone which means whetstone, so-called because it has the same power to cause rapid death as whetstone had to “give an edge to an iron blade.”

  The plant is extremely toxic and its poison can be absorbed through the skin, so it is best avoided. This cautionary tale is told by Nikander, circa 130 BC: he refers to it as the “woman-killer” saying that Calpurnius Bestia was accused of killing women while they slept, by inserting his finger which was smeared with wolfsbane poison into their vagina or onto their vulva while they slept (?). The poison causes respiratory or heart failure resulting in death.

  Dioscorides writing his De Materia Medica in the first century AD describes two different plants, the first used in eye lotions to relieve pain, and to kill wolves, and this is believed to be wolfsbane. The second plant he describes is now called Monkshood, another member of the aconite family, which was also used to kill wolves. Perhaps these plants were the poison used in the “wolf peach” which was used as bait for wolves. Europeans believed that the tomato was the ancient wolf peach when it first arrived in Europe.

  These ancient writings are clearly the reason for the plant’s modern name, wolfsbane. (The bane, death or heavy burden of wolves.)

  This plant has yellow flowers whereas Monkshood, also called wolfsbane, has blue-purple ones. Yellow wolfsbane flowers between July and August, and can grow to over a metre tall. Reportedly the root has been eaten after boiling in Lapland, but even touching this plant is not recommended.

  The root has been used in traditional medicine systems after careful preparation, for a variety of illnesses, including for obstructions of the body’s organs, coughs, as a diuretic, and to promote sweating in fevers, as a sedative and stimulant.

  The key toxins in this plant are the alkaloids aconite and aconitine. You can become unwell simply by smelling the flowers, so don’t be tempted! Because of its distinctive, unpleasant taste there have been few reports of accidental death from ingesting wolfsbane. Richard C. Dart in his book “Medical Toxicology” has this to say of it: “Most poisonings occur when these plants are used in herbal remedies, or mistaken for parsley or the roots of horseradish or celery.” This is a reference to deaths caused by poisoning in Asia where the plant is used in herbal medicine.

ALPINE LADY'S MANTLE WITH SIMILAR PROPERTIES TO LADY'S MANTLE: HISTORY AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF ALPINE LADY'S MANTLE

ALPINE OR MOUNTAIN LADY’S MANTLE, ALCEMILLA ALPINA 

Alpine lady’s mantle is smaller than Achemilla mollis or common Lady’s Mantle, and is around a third of its size, although its medicinal properties are said to be more potent than the more common plant. Its leaves are edged with silver, making it an attractive rockery plant.

It grows near small streams in Scotland and is hardy in more northerly climes. It is a member of the Rosaceae or rose family of plants and as such is related to almonds, loquats, quinces, plums, peaches, apricots, strawberries, apples, blackberries, raspberries and pears.

  The roots have astringent properties as do the leaves as the plant is rich in tannin, making it good externally for cuts and wounds and internally for diarrhoea, among other problems. Both of the Lady’s Mantles were considered to be among the best of the vulnerary (wound-healing) herbs. As the common Lady’s Mantle it is a good herb to use when you have menstrual problems. It ranks with self-heal, marsh woundwort and bugle.

  Nicholas Culpeper writing in the 17^th century has this to say about it:-

“Government and virtues. Venus claims the herb as her own. Ladies' Mantle is very proper for those wounds that have inflammations, and is very effectual to stay bleeding, vomitings, fluxes of all sorts, bruises by falls or otherwise, and helps ruptures; and such women as have large breasts, causing them to grow less and hard, being both drank and outwardly applied; the distilled water drank for 20 days together helps conception, and to retain the birth; if the women do sometimes also sit in a bath made of the decoction of the herb. It is one of the most singular wound herbs that is, and therefore highly prized and praised by the Germans, who use it in all wounds inward and outward, to drink a decoction thereof, and wash the wounds therewith, or dip tents therein, and put them into the wounds, which wonderfully dries up all humidity of the sores, and abates inflammations therein. It quickly heals all green wounds, not suffering any corruption to remain behind, and cures all old sores, though fistulous and hollow.”

  The expressed juice form the plant can be applied directly to wounds and cuts and the herb is good for menopausal symptoms such as hot flushes. If you make a decoction of the whole herb, this will help with excessive vaginal discharge. Presumably this is what Culpeper meant when he mentioned that some women used it in their baths.

BUTTER NUT TREE WITH MAHUA FLOWERS: SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE FOR TRADITIONAL USES - HEALTH BENEFITS AND USES OF THE BUTTER NUT TREE

BUTTER NUT TREE, MAHUA, MADHUCA LONGIFOLIA 

The butter nut tree is an evergreen or semi-evergreen tree with a dense canopy, which grows in forests in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. It is cultivated in warm climates for its oil-bearing seeds, although traditionally the flowers of the mahua tree have been and are used and gathered for the brewing industry and for use in medicine (see post on Mahua flowers). The tree is a member of the Sapotaceae family and as such is related to the African Shea tree, which is also famous for its shea butter. A synonym which is accepted for this tree is Madhuca indica, although there are others which are not accepted by the world’s experts.

   The “butter” from the butter nut tree comes from its oil-producing seeds, and this is used as an edible oil in some parts of India. The seed cake which remains after extracting the oil is unsuitable for animal feed because of the saponins it contains but can be used to make soap. The tree starts to produce flowers and fruit when it is ten years old and it is estimated that it can produce 90 kilos of flowers per annum. It continues to be productive until it is approximately a hundred years old.

  The flowers are a yellow-white, which when ripe and fallen give place to an oval fruit which is initially green and then yellow when ripe. It ripens between May and September, depending on which part of the subcontinent the trees are in. The flesh is eaten as a vegetable, and the one to four seeds it contains can be pressed to obtain oil. Currently this is being studied for its potential as biodiesel. (Biomass and Bioenergy Vol. 35 (4) April 2011, pp.1539-44, Sangita Yadau et al. “Prospects and potential of Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) J f Macbride for nutritional and industrial purposes”. This concludes that as the seed oil contains palmitic, oleic, linoleic and stearic fatty acids it has both nutritional and industrial possibilities.)

  One study has shown that the ‘butter’ from these seeds has more free radical scavenging power than that of extra-virgin olive oil. There are studies underway which are investigating the cytotoxicity properties of the ethanol extract of the seeds and their oil.

  Apart from the flowers the other aerial parts of this butter nut tree have medicinal properties and have been the subject of some clinical trials which have set out to determine if the traditional medicinal uses of this tree have any basis in scientific fact.

  The powdered outer layer of bark is mixed with ghee and honey is used to enhance male libido, so is thought to be an aphrodisiac. The powdered bark is also mixed with long pepper and other ingredients to use as nasal drops for sinusitis and for epilepsy. The seed saponins have been found to have anti-inflammatory properties, and traditionally it has been massaged into joints to relieve the pain of rheumatism and arthritis. The bark is used in a variety of preparations to relieve itching, swellings, fractures, and for snake bites - externally. Internally it is used to treat diabetes mellitus.

  The heartwood of the tree has been used in traditional medicine systems for seizures. One study published in Pharmacognosy Communicatuions, 2011, Vol.1 (2) pp. 18-22 by Sandip Patel et al “Investigation into the mechanism of Action of Madhuca longifolia for its Anti-epileptic Activity” supported the traditional use of the heartwood in the treatment of epilepsy.

  The leaves are used for diabetes in Indian folk medicine and a study published in Internet Journal of Pharmacology 2009 Vol. 6 (2) by Rumi Ghosh et al “Antihyperglyaemic activity of Madhuca longifolia in alloxan-induced diabetic rats” showed that an ethanolic extract of the leaves demonstrated “significant hypoglycaemic activity” concluding that a long-term study was required to “develop potential antidiabetes drugs.”

  The leaves are said to have expectorant properties and so are used for coughs. They are also used in poultices and applied to eczema. They have been found to have antibacterial properties and are used as cooling agents in cases of fever.

  This is another tree which has immense potential for human health.

MAHUA FLOWERS: THEIR USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS

MAHUA FLOWERS FROM THE BUTTER NUT TREE, MADHUA LONGIFOLIA 

The Butter nut tree is native to the Indian subcontinent and grows in forests where the mahua flowers from it are collected from the ground by tribes’ people. The tree is a member of the Sapotaceae family and as such is related to the African Shea tree which produces the ingredient used in cosmetics, shea butter.

  The tree is an evergreen or semi-evergreen and grows to between 17 and 20 metres high, with a dense, spreading canopy. It is now cultivated in warm climates for its oil-bearing seeds. However in parts of rural India tribal people rely on the flowers of mahua as it is called (mahuva in Urdu) for their family income.

  The flowers do not remain on the tree for long, and some say that they bloom at night and fall to the forest floor at dawn. They bloom between March and May, or at least this is their peak season, and the fruits ripen during the rainy season as do mangoes.

  The flowers are dried after being collected from the forest floor and then sold to the state government in Orissa, for example, so that they can be made into an alcoholic drink. Unfortunately they are paid ridiculously low prices for their efforts and the flowers have been affected by climate change and are falling to the ground before they are mature because of unseasonable rain. They are also infested with red ants and these are not spotted until the flowers have been gathered, thus spoiling them.

  The flowers and trees have religious significance for these people and there is a legend that Shiva gave the trees to people so that they could give the gods wine with their sacrifices of animals. Shiva called a parrot, a tiger and a boar, and turned them into mahua trees; that is why, so it is said, that if you drink a little of the wine made from these flowers you repeat things as a parrot does. If you drink a little more of the wine you start roaring like a tiger, until finally, when you have drunk a lot, you lounge around on the floor like a boar.

leaf buds

  The flowers were used in garlands when a princess chose a bridegroom and they are still part of religious ceremonies today, especially in central India. The branches from the tree are also used in marriage ceremonies and the tree is sacred to some tribes in India.

  In Sanskrit madhu means honey and this is how the tree got its botanical name, as the flowers have a strong aroma which is reportedly musky and heady. Tamils use the flowers as sweeteners when there is no sugar from sugar cane available, although they use this with caution as excessive use of the flowers is believed to prevent people thinking clearly and could lead to complete lunacy.

  In traditional medicine, the flowers are used for a variety of purposes. An extract of the flowers is used for heart disease and to treat excessive vaginal discharge. This is also believed to be good for the eyes, TB, asthma, blood diseases, thirst and burning sensations. The flowers are also believed to be aphrodisiacs and to increase the quantity (but not necessarily the quality) of sperm.

  The distilled juice of the flowers is used to get rid of parasitical internal worms, tonsillitis and bronchial problems. The juice of the flowers is used directly on the skin to treat skin problems, and as nasal drops it is used for sinusitis. A decoction of the flowers quenches thirst, and a general health tonic is made with powdered dried flowers mixed with ghee and honey. The flowers are also used to promote lactation in breast-feeding mothers, and to cure cystitis, while the expressed juice is also used to staunch the bleeding of wounds.

  The flowers are not the only parts of the tree used, but the rest of the tree is dealt with in another post. Click here to read it.

TOOTHBRUSH OR SANDPAPER TREE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE TOOTHBRUSH TREE

TOOTHBRUSH TREE, SANDPAPER TREE, STREBLUS ASPER 

The toothbrush tree or sandpaper tree is a member of the Moraceae family so is related to the banyan, peepal, mulberry, shahtoot mulberry, Punjab fig, European fig, the Tropical fig (Ficus septica) and to the Jackfruit trees. It is native to the Indian subcontinent, southern China, Thailand, Myanmar, the Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.

  It is a small tree growing to around 10 metres with dense branches, and has small yellow fruit which look a little like loquats. In the Philippines it is known as Kalios and in India it is the Shakhotaka. Its leaves are like sandpaper, hence one of its English names, and these have been used as toothbrushes (the other English name) and for oral hygiene.

  It has been used in traditional systems of medicine for centuries and lends itself to the art of topiary and bonsai.

  The bark of the tree can be boiled in water and the resultant liquid is used as a disinfectant for wounds and skin problems. A decoction of the bark is used for fever, diarrhoea and dysentery, while the bark itself is chewed as an antidote to snake bites. In the Philippines a tea is made from the leaves and drunk as a beverage. The powdered root is used for diarrhoea and dysentery and can be made into a poultice for ulcers on the skin. The root is used for epilepsy, inflammation and boils, and the root extract is astringent and antiseptic. The bark exudes a latex when cut which is used in India for chapped hands and feet. It is also used for swollen glands, being put on them externally. The seeds are used for nosebleeds, piles and diarrhoea too.

 An extract of the leaves has been shown to have antimicrobial properties, and one study, undertaken by Subha Rastagi et al. “Streblus asper Lour, (Shakhotaka): A Review of its Chemical, pharmacological and Ethnomedicinal Properties” in Evidenced-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Vol. 3 (2) pp 217-222, stated that the tree possesses antioxidant, anti-allergic, antimalarial, anti-cancer, cardio-tonic and insecticidal properties. The volatile oil from the leaves showed “significant anti-cancer activity” as does an extract of the root according to a further study Abstract B73: “Chemopreventive effect of Streblus asper, a bonsai plant, on osteosarcoma cells: A Preliminary Study” Azman Seeni et al. Cancer Prevention Research 3 (Meeting Abstract Supplement) B73 January 7^th  2010. This study suggests that the antioxidant compounds in the root extract such as caffeic acid may act as carcinogenic inhibitors, although further research is needed to substantiate the findings and to carry the work further.

  In Ayurvedic medicine the leaves are used to help promote the milk-flow of breast-feeding mothers, as well as being used as poultices for boils and skin ulcers. The roots are used for diarrhoea and dysentery while a decoction of the bark is also given for these ailments and for fevers. The latex from the tree is sometimes applied to the temples in cases of neuralgia and a paste made from the seeds is applied to leucoderma.

  In Bangladesh parts of the tree are used for syphilis and other STDs and for cholera, piles, wounds and as a mild pain reliever or analgesic.

  Clearly more research is needed to discover the mechanisms which cause this tree to have such beneficial effects on human diseases.

  

BULRUSH, THERE ARE BETTER HERBS TO USE: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF BULRUSHES

BULRUSH, TYPHA LATIFOLIA 

The common bulrush grows in shallow water in all temperate, tropical and sub-tropical regions in the Northern hemisphere and is a native rush in Britain. It can grow to between 5 and 10 feet high, and is edible, although if it grows in polluted water, it should not be eaten as the plant soaks up the pollutants. The bulrush is also known as cattail and reedmace.

  The roots of the bulrush may be boiled and eaten as you would a potato; and if they are macerated and then boiled they will produce and edible sweet syrup. You can dry the roots and grind them to a powder which, if added to wheat flour enriches it, as the root is not only starchy but contains protein. This mixture can be used to make bread etc.

  The young shoots can be eaten raw or cooked in spring, and can be cooked and used as a substitute for asparagus; in fact they are sometimes called “Cossack’s asparagus.” They are said to taste like cucumbers. You can actually eat the shoots when they are up to 50 centimetres in length, and the base of the stem when it is mature, can be eaten too, either raw or cooked, although it is best to remove the outer layer of the stem.

  The flower spike may also be eaten before it is ripe, either raw or in a soup, and this is said to taste like sweet corn. When ripe the seeds may be eaten either raw or roasted, although they are difficult to harvest. These have a nutty taste and may also be ground to be added to flour for baking purposes. They also produce an edible oil.

  The pollen may also be eaten as it is protein-rich and can be added to flour. To gather the pollen you can shake the flower spike over a wide shallow container and then, with a fine brush, remove the remainder.

  The whole plant has been used medicinally too, the dried pollen may be used on wounds as it will remove blood clots being an anticoagulant, although when it is roasted with charcoal it becomes haemostatic, and is used for haemorrhages, painful menstruation and kidney stones, as well as uterine bleeding, cancer of the lymphatic system, abscesses and post-partum pains.

  However bulrushes should not be used during pregnancy.

  A decoction of the stems has been used for whooping cough, and the roots have diuretic properties and promote the milk flow in breast-feeding mothers. They have been used in tonics and for their refrigerant properties. Pounded to a jelly they can be used as a poultice for wounds, cuts, burns and scalds.

  The flowers have been used for stomach pains, lack of a woman’s periods, and irregular ones, as well as for cystitis. Eating the young flower heads is supposed to stop diarrhoea. The downy material from the seeds has been used to line a baby’s nappy and for wound dressings.

  In autumn the leaves were gathered for thatching material, they can also be made into paper, and rayon has been made from their pulp. The stems were used for rush lighting, and the pollen, being highly inflammable has been used to make home-made fireworks. The stems can also be woven into mats, hats, and seats for chairs.

  Despite these uses for bulrushes, Nicholas Culpeper, the 17^th century English herbalist was very scathing about all rushes, including bulrushes, which he names particularly. He wrote this about rushes:-

“The seed of the soft rushes, saith Dioscorides and Galen (toasted saith Pliny) drunk in wine and water, stayeth the lask and women’s courses, when too abundant; but it causeth head-ache; it provoketh sleep, but must be given with caution. The root boiled in water to one-third helpeth the cough.

  What I have written here concerning rushes is to satisfy my countrymen’s question: Are our rushes good for nothing? Yes, and as good to let them alone as taken. There are remedies enough without them for disease, and therefore as the old proverb is, I care not a rush for them: or rather, they will do you as much good as if one had given you a rush.”

  Clearly he didn’t like them much or think that they were efficacious in the treatment of any illnesses. Other plants were better.

YELLOW HORNED POPPY - RESEMBLES LARGE BUTTERCUP: HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF THE YELLOW HORNED POPPY

YELLOW HORNED POPPY, GLAUCIUM FLAVUM 

The yellow horned poppy is a member of the Papavaraceae or poppy family of plants and so is related to another British wildflower, the Greater Celandine as well as to the poppies. The 16^th century herbalist John Gerard (1545-1612), describes it very well so I have reprinted his description here:

 “The yellow horned poppy hath whitish leaves very much cut or jagged, somewhat like the leaves of garden Poppie, but rougher and more hairie. The stalks be long, round, and brittle. The floures be large and yellow, consisting of foure leaves; which being past, there come long huskes or cods, crooked like an horn or cornet, wherein is conteined small black seede. The roote is great, thicke, scalie, and rough, continuing long.”

  So now you know why it is called the horned poppy- its seed pods are swollen and pointed, sometimes with horn-like pieces coming from them.

  The yellow horned poppy is a protected species under the UK’s Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981, so please don’t pick this flower. It is believed to have the largest seed pod of any of Britain’s native plants. It can live for up to five years and only flowers in its second year of growth during the months of June to September. It lives on single banks close to the sea and has also been called the Sea poppy. Its botanical synonym is Glaucium luteum.

  It is psychoactive and there is one report from the Royal Society of 1698 of a man who mistook this plant for that of sea holly or eryngoes. He baked the root in a pie and ate it hot, whereupon he became a victim of its hallucinatory and cathartic actions and mistook the content of his chamber pot for gold!

  The plant contains a yellow latex in its stems, and the seeds are oil producing. The oil has been used for lighting purposes as it burns cleanly and has also been used in soap-making. It contains the alkaloids glaucine, protopine, chelidonine, chelerythrine and cordine as well as fumaric and chelidonic acids.

  Glaucine is known to be a good ingredient for cough medicine and it has also been investigated for its ability to inhibit the growth of cancerous cells in vitro. Studies are being carried out around the world to investigate these actions and those of the other alkaloids present in the yellow horned poppy further. It has been found to have antiviral and antibacterial properties and to be effective against coughs and to help with bronchial problems.

  Writing in the 17^th century, Nicholas Culpeper had this to say about the medicinal properties of the plant:-

“Virtues. Like its species, it is under the Sun in Leo; and is aperitive and cleansing, opening obstructions of the spleen and liver, and of great use in curing the jaundice and scurvy: some reckon it cordial, and a good antidote against the plague. Some quantity of it is put into aqua mirabilis. Outwardly it is used for sore eyes, to dry up the rheum, and take away specks and films, as also against tetters and ringworms, and scurfy breakings-out. The root dried and powdered, is a galsamic and sub-astringent. It is given against bloody-fluxes, and in other hæmorrhages, half a drachm for a dose.”

COMMON DUCKWEED - NOT ONLY FOR DUCKS:HISTORY, USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF COMMON DUCKWEED

COMMON DUCKWEED, LEMNA MINOR

The Common or lesser Duckweed is often found on garden ponds and is the bane of gardeners who don’t want to get rid of it by using chemicals. It can spread on the feet of aquatic birds and on their bills. However it does have some uses and may be a useful source of biomass and biofuel in the future. It also has some surprising health benefits.

  The ancient Welsh Physicians of Myddfai had these two remedies which include it: -

“For swelling or hardness of the stomach. Boil duckweed in goat's milk, and foment it therewith frequently…

If the bowels become so constipated that they cannot be moved, take duckweed, boiling it briskly in a pot, then cast it into a pan, and fry with a quantity of blood and butter, eating it hot.”

  William Turner (c.1508-1568) often called the “Father of English Botany” had this to say of it, calling “duckis meate” for fairly obvious reasons, I suppose.

 “Duckis meate hath a cooling nature, whereof it is good to be laid to imposthumes and gatherings of the humours that run to one place, to the wildfire and great burnings, to the gouty members both alone and also with the meal of parched barley. It glueth or bindeth, or maketh fast the bowels of young chider. Galen writeth that duckis meate is of a cold and moist temperature and in manner is both cold and moist in the second degree.”

  Nicholas Culpeper, writing in the 17^th century has this to say of it:-

“Government and virtues. Cancer claims the herb, and the Moon will be lady of it; a word is enough to a wise man. It is effectual to help inflammations, and St. Anthony's fire, as also the gout, either applied by itself, or in a poultice with barley-meal. The distilled water by some is highly esteemed against all inward inflammations and pestilent fevers: as also to help the redness of the eyes, and swelling of the scrotum, and of the breasts before they be grown too much. The fresh herb applied to the forehead, easeth the pains of the head-ach coming of heat.”

  It has been used as a poultice as the common mallow and marsh mallow are for inflammations and swellings.

  It has often been used as poultry food and may have some value to the food industry in the future, one Turkish study published in 2010 showed that common duckweed has antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-candidal properties ( Ilhami Gűlçin et al. Turkish Journal of Biology Vol.34 pp 175-188); this study also found flavonoids such as quercetin and phenolic compounds which have antioxidant properties.

 Kiosov P.A.(2001) in Comprehensive Catalogue of Medicinal Plants ( EKSMO-Press: Moscow), states that duckweed has been used as raw material for the production of analgesic and antipyretic remedies. It is also used in pellet form in homeopathic remedies for asthma.

 Duckweed has been classed in the Araceae family of plants, having formerly been in the Lemnaceae, so as such is the relative of Gloriosa superba or the Flame Lily, the Calla Lily, taro, the Elephant’s foot yam, cuckoo-pint and the sweet flag.